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Appreciation  of  Art 

By 
BLANCHE  G.  LOVERIDGE 

Dean  of  Women  in  Denison  University 


^ 


GRANVILLE.  OHIO 
1912 


L6 


Copyright  1912 

by 

Blanche  G,  Loveridge 


THC  CHAMPLIN    FRCSS 
COLUMBUS,    OHIO 


To  My  Pupils 


\ 


228659 


Courtesy  of  Walter  L.  Lillie  &  Company,  Columbus,  Ohio. 


Keep  pure  thy  soul! 

Then  shah  thou  take  the  whole 

Of  delight; 
Then,  without  a  pang, 
Thine  shall  be  all  beauty  whereof  the  poet 

sang — 
The  perfume,  and  the  pageant,  the  melody, 

the  mirth 
Of  the  golden  day,  and  the  starry  night; 
Of  heaven,  and  of  earth. 

Oh,  keep  pure  thy  soul! 
— Richard  Watson  Gilder:    Five  Books  of  Song. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Page 

Chapter        I.  Explanation  of  the  Term  11 

Chapter      II.  Architecture         -         -  51 

Chapter     III.  Italian  Painting         -         -  99 

Chapter    IV.  Painting,  Other  Schools  145 

Chapter     V.  Sculpture         -         -         -  187 

Chapter    VI.  Music         -         -         -         -  219 

Chapter  VII.  Unity  of  Art         -         -  251 


Introduction 

This  publication,  compiled  during  spare  moments, 
is  offered  as  a  textbook  for  a  one-hour  course  in 
Appreciation  of  Art.  As  the  discussion  of  each 
subject  is  confined  to  one,  or  at  the  most,  to  twa 
chapters,  it  is  necessarily  limited.  However,  the 
book  aims  to  present  very  simply  a  few  of  the  essen- 
tials in  a  consideration  of  the  Fine  Arts  and  thereby 
to  suggest  and  to  encourage  further  study.  Many 
students  do  pot  elect  the  History  of  Art  in  College, 
and  this  brief  course  is  their  one  introduction  to  the 
artists'  v/orld.  For  this  reason,  at  the  end  of  each 
subject  is  presented  a  purely  arbitrary,  but  suggest- 
ive list  of  masterpieces  to  enable  the  reader  to  carry 
away  certain  definite  information  about  four  of  the 
Fine  Arts.  Literature  has  been  omitted  for  lack  of 
time  and  space.  If  the  book  in  any  way  serves  to 
stimulate  thought  and  to  enrich  the  memory  of  the 
students,  thereby  making  life  for  them  fuller  and' 
more  joyous,  the  writer  will  be  amply  repaid. 


Chapter  I 


"If  you  accept  art,  it  must  be  a  part  of  your  daily  lives. 
You  will  have  it  with  you  in  your  sorrow  as  in  your  joy.  It 
shall  be  shared  by  gentle  and  simple,  learned  and  unlearned, 
and  be  as  a  language  all  can  understand." — William  Morris. 


An  EbCPLANATION  OF  THE  APPRECIATION  OF 

Art. 

There  are  many  ways  of  defining  art.  Van  Dyke 
says:  "Art  is  the  minghng  of  Nature  and  of  human 
nature;**  Ruskin,  that  "Art  is  the  whole  spirit  of 
man.**  Another  writer  claims  that  it  is  the  "concrete 
embodiment  of  an  ideal**  and  Carleton  Noyes 
interprets  art  as  "the  medium  by  which  the  artist 
communicates  himself  to  his  fellows."  These  defi- 
nitions have  one  character  in  common,  namely :  they 
agree  thai  art  is  related  to  the  best  in  man;  that  it 
is  an  experience  of  the  spirit  which  finds  an  avenue 
of  expression  called  art.  TTierefore  if  art  is  con- 
cerned with  the  best  in  man  it  must  minister  to  his 
development,  because  growth  is  the  fundamental 
principle  in  life  which  makes  man's  best  possible. 

11 


12  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

Also,  if  art  is  primarily  an  experience  of  the  spirit, 
it  must  be  broad  enough  to  cover  all  branches  of 
knowledge  and  all  phases  of  skill.     This  breadth 
of  art  brings  us  to  its  universality. 
I     The  art-impulse  in  man  is  a  very  generous  and 
jwise  provision  for  his  happiness,  for  his  usefulness, 
land  for  his  welfare.     It  would  seem  also  that  our 
^kind  Creator  is  no  respecter  of  persons  in  that  he 
I  has  given  to  each  of  us  regardless  of  color,  locality, 
age,  or  station,  certain  tendencies  toward  the  appreci- 
ation and  cultivation  of  the  beautiful.     Again,  art 
is  in  itself  a  great  leveler  for  it  makes  the  rich  debt- 
or to  the  poor,  the  peasant  a  peer  of  kings,  and 
the  idle  the  beneficiary  of  the  industrious.       This 
common    possession    of    an    art-impulse    naturally 
^  brings  to  pass  the  universality  of  art. 

Even  now  as  I  write  a  brass  tray  inlaid  with  cop- 
per and  with  silver  and  made  by  hand  in  Egypt 
reminds  me  that  the  modern  Egyptians  rejoice  in 
an  art  heritage  which  antedates  history.  Also  a 
silver  stamp-box  made  in  the  craft-shops  of  India, 
its  exterior  curiously  wrought  with  figures  in  relief, 
ministers  to  my  convenience  and  pleasure  and  recalls 
to  me  the  beliefs  and  craftsmanship  of  the  Burmans. 
Here  are  also  a  penholder  from  China  and  a  pen- 
knife from  the  Philippines.     In  short  I  have  but  to 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  13 

look  about  me  to  perceive  the  universality  of  art 
from  the  East  to  the  West  and  from  Canada  to 
the  islands  of  the  sea.  These  pictures  and  antiques 
are  some  of  them  old  with  a  history  of  several  hun- 
dreds of  years.  But  their  value  as  art  treasures 
rises  superior  to  time.  In  fact  it  is  enhanced  by  time. 
Nor  is  this  collection  of  articles  unusual.  Many 
studies  possess  pictures,  curios,  and  bric-a-brac 
which  testify  to  the  universal  possession  of  an  art- 
impulse  which  finds  expression  in  the  workmanship 
of  man. 

•   No  two  of  us  like  the  same  thing  in  exactly  the'| 
same  degree.     Our  temperament,  our  training,  andj 
our  environment  enter  into  our  likes  and  our  dis-J[, 
likes.     Thus  we  find  ourselves  saying,  "My  taste 
lies  in  such  and  such  direction."  This  universal  quali- 
ty of  taste  may  not  be  educated,  but  it  always 
carries  with  it  the  tendency  to  growth  and  to  modifi- 
cation.   It  is  with  this  inherent  quality  of  taste  that! 
a  work  of  art  deals. 

Moreover  a  work  of  art  always  takes  for  granted 
two  people,  the  artist  and  the  spectator.  The  function 
of  art  must  therefore  be  defined  in  these  two  terms. 
We  have  already  said  that  art  is  the  concrete  embodi- 
ment of  an  ideal  and  of  the  medium  through  which 
an  artist  communicates  himself  to  his  fellows.    This 


1 4  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

being  true,  the  office  of  art  to  the  artist  is  mainly 
an  avenue  of  expression  through  which  he  may 
make  known  the  best  that  he  has.  But  art  to  the 
artist  is  more  than  a  means  of  conveyance,  it  is  at 
the  same  time  an  embodiment  of  an  ideal,  a  glimpse 
of  God,  as  it  were,  clothed  in  the  Good,  in  the  True, 
and  in  the  Beautiful;  a  message,  if  you  will,  which 
burning  within  the  soul  of  the  artist  finds  its  way 
out  through  his  conception  and  through  his  execution. 
The  function  of  art  to  the  artist  then  is  first  to  lift 
him  above  his  companions  into  the  pure  air  of  vision 
and  of  aspiration,  and  second,  to  act  as  an  outlet, 
or  as  a  means  of  expression,  for  the  truth  which  he 
has  acquired. 

What  then  is  the  function  of  art  to  the  onlooker, 
or  to  the  world  about  the  artist?  We  have  found 
that  inherent  in  each  of  us  is  the  quality  of  taste. 
The  first  office  of  art  to  the  beholder  would  seem 
to  be  a  mere  gratification  of  taste.  However  there 
resides  in  the  onlooker  a  power  of  appreciation,  of 
interpretation,  and  of  assimilation  which  greatly  over- 
flows the  small  measure  of  gratification  of  taste  in 
the  individual.  Rather  it  would  seem  that  the  office 
of  art  to  the  spectator  is  to  introduce  him  by  means 
of  his  taste  to  the  soul  of  the  artist.       From  him 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  15 

one  learns  not  only  to  appreciate  and  to  interpret 
his  work,  but  also  to  make  it  one's  own  through 
keen  enjoyment  in  and  understanding  of  the  work 
of  art.  This  ability  in  the  onlooker  to  become  one 
with  the  artist,  to  interpret  his  meaning,  to  feel  the 
keen  joy  of  possession  and  achievement,  is  one  of 
the  most  potential  tendencies  in  man,  and  one  which 
raises  him  "but  little  lower  than  the  angels." 

Summarizing  the  function  of  art  to  the  artist  and 
to  his  audience,  we  find  that  to  the  former  it  is  not 
only  a  means  of  expression,  but  also  a  stimulus  to 
aspiration  and  to  inspiration,  while  to  the  latter  it 
is  a  revelation  not  only  of  the  meaning  of  the  picture, 
but  also  a  revelation  of  the  very  soul  of  the  creator. 

The  discussion  of  the  function  of  art  has  brought 
to  light  two  elements,  namely,  the  artist  and  the 
onlooker.  The  third  element  is  the  work  of  art 
which  is  the  connecting  link  between  the  other  two. 
If  we  look  first  at  the  artist,  we  find  again  three  dis- 
tinct attributes,  namely,  his  nature,  his  method  of 
expression,  and  his  rank. 

The  artist  by  nature  is  different  from  other  men. 
This  difference  is  so  marked  that  we  call  it  by  com- 
mon consent  the  "artistic  temperament."  This  term 
implies  special  characteristics,  namely,  that  the  artist 


1 6  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

is  very  sensitive  to  harmony  and  to  inharmony  as 
well.  He  is  more  alert  to  sights  and  to  sounds 
detecting  values  in  the  everyday  world  which  make 
little  or  no  appeal  to  those  with  whom  he  touches 
elbows.  Generally  speaking,  he  considers  Nature 
as  a  vast  storehouse  in  which  he  finds  the  material 
with  which  to  construct  a  world  of  his  own,  in  which 
light  and  sound,  rhythm  and  harmony,  and  space 
and  form  make  a  lasting  appeal.  Again  artists  are 
born  not  made.  Biography  teems  with  examples 
of  very  young  artists,  precocious  at  the  piano,  with 
the  pencil,  with  the  brush  and  with  clay.  Also  an 
artist  to  be  anything  more  than  a  promise  must  have 
the  faculty  for  hard  work.  Perfection  in  any  degree 
in  the  art  world  never  comes  without  effort.  Hard 
work,  close  work,  and  constant  work  are  all  made 
possible  by  his  love  for  his  subject,  a  love  so  great 
that  it  makes  the  work  feature  disappear  until  only 
the  joy  of  application  and  accomplishment  remains. 
Another  quality  of  the  artist  is  his  ability  to  stamp 
himself  upon  his  work.  We  have  in  the  history  of 
painting  what  is  known  as  "schools  of  art."  A 
school  of  art  may  mean  one  of  three  things.  It 
may  be  a  geographical  division,  as  the  Italian  School. 
To  this  school  belong  all  the  men  who  painted  dur- 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  17 

ing  the  Middle  Ages  in  Italy  or  during  the  period 
when  Italian  standards  in  composition,  technique, 
form,  and  color  prevailed.  Again  a  school  of  art 
may  mean  a  group  of  artists  with  a  definite  aim 
and  character,  as  the  Pre-Raphaelite  School  in  Eng- 
land during  the  last  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Lastly  a  school  of  art  may  mean  the  personal  influ- 
ence of  one  artist,  as  the  School  of  Rubens,  the 
School  of  Murillo,  the  School  of  Corot.  It  is  this 
last  definition  which  proves  the  characteristic  of  the 
artist,  the  ability  to  stamp  himself  upon  his  work. 
For  instance.  Van  Dyck  was  the  gentleman  painter 
of  England.  Himself  a  courtier  he  painted  the  life  of 
the  court.  Van  Dyck  himself  is  a  part  of  every  por- 
trait. This  is  equally  true  in  the  realm  of  music. 
Bach,  Medelssohn,  and  Chopin  have  their  char- 
acteristic peculiarities  in  a  style  which,  like  Van 
Dyck,  is  the  subtle  expression  of  themselves. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  artist  is  his  ability 
to  express  himself.  It  is  this  very  confidence  in  his 
subject  that  makes  the  artist  so  potential.  Biography 
gives  us  many  incidents  of  the  ultimate  triumph  of 
the  genius  of  the  individual.  French  art  illustrates 
this  point  to  perfection.  Jean  Louis  Meissonier, 
William  Adolphe  Bonguereau,  and  Puvis  de  Cha- 


rS  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

vannes,  three  painters  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
braved  ridicule,  poverty,  and  physical  hardship  in 
order  to  be  true  to  the  faith  that  was  in  them.  In 
our  own  country  Edgar  Allen  Poe  died  neglected, 
despised,  and  alone,  to  the  end  confident  of  his 
transcendent  genius  which  the  literary  world  to-day 
is  so  proud  to  honor.  This  is  true  in  sculpture.  As 
we  stand  before  the  statue  of  Nathan  Hale  in  the 
City  Hall  Park,  New  York  City,  we  recognize 
the  genius  of  Frederick  Mac  Monnies.  In  All 
Souls'  Church,  New  York  City,  we  look  reverently 
upon  a  wall-relief  by  Augustus  St.  Gaudens,  the 
teacher  of  Mac  Monnies.  And  yet  both  of  these 
men  defied  the  best  judgment  and  personal  prefer- 
ences of  family  and  friends  in  order  to  be  true  to 
the  promptings  of  their  genius. 

Such  is  the  nature  of  the  artist.  Unusually  sen- 
sitive to  his  environment,  equipped  with  a  native 
alertness  to  sights  and  sounds,  confident  of  his  genius, 
able  to  impress  himself  upon  his  work,  and  endowed 
with  a  rare  power  to  detect  values,  he  lives  in  a 
dream  world,  where,  using  nature  as  a  storehouse 
and  hard  work  as  a  tool,  he  finally  builds  for  him- 
self a  temple  of  joy  and  of  accomplishment. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  19 

History  tells  us  that  the  Fine  Arts  are  five: 
painting,  architecture,  sculpture,  music,  and  litera- 
ture. With  these  are  allied  many  lesser  arts,  sub- 
jects which  bridge  the  chasm  between  art  and  artisan- 
ship.  The  artist  then  must  speak  through  one  of 
these  five  media,  as  a  painter,  as  an  architect,  as  a 
sculptor,  as  a  musician,  or  as  a  writer.  Among  the 
lesser  arts  are  such  subjects  as  rugs  and  tapestries, 
and  crockery  and  porcelain.  However  public  opin- 
ion would  hardly  classify  without  qualification  a 
master  in  the  lesser  arts  as  an  artist.  This  term  is 
reserved  by  critics  principally  for  those  who  excel 
in  the  fine  arts.  Method  of  expression  as  a  quality 
in  the  artist  refers  not  only  to  the  medium  through 
which  he  speaks,  but  also  to  the  artist's  interpreta- 
tion of  this  medium.  If  he  is  a  painter  he  may  be 
interested  primarily  in  color  as  were  Titian  and 
Turner ;  or  he  may  be  interested  in  thought  and  feel- 
ing as  were  Leonardo  and  Andrea;  or  in  form  like 
the  tempest-tossed  Michael  Angelo.  Again,  if  he 
is  a  sculptor,  does  he  work  in  intaglio  or  in  relief  cut 
from  a  background?  Are  his  statues  seated,  stand- 
ing, recumbent,  or  equestrian?  If  he  is  an  architect, 
does  he  plan  dwellings,  churches,  schools,  or  sky-  . 
scrapers?     In  other  words  after  the  medium  is  de- 


20  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

fined  what  is  the  method  of  expression.  This  of 
course  depends  upon  the  special  aptitude  of  the 
artist.  Time,  training,  and  experience  frequently 
effect  a  change  in  his  medium,  and  the  artist  may 
express  himself  in  one  or  in  many  media.  However 
we  see  that  the  artist's  method  of  expression  is  first 
the  fine  art  of  his  choice,  and  second,  the  special  fea- 
tures of  his  subject  in  which  he  excels. 

Art  is  the  embodiment  of  some  great  truth  and  an 
artist  is  one  to  whom  this  truth  appeals  albeit  un- 
consciously. Nevertheless  the  very  sensitiveness  of 
his  nature  to  harmony  and  to  a  lack  of  harmony, 
his  susceptibility,  his  irritability,  if  you  will,  is  but 
the  call  to  a  quest  for  Truth.  These  facts  about 
the  artist  prove  that  he  is  very  dependent  upon  his 
environment,  or  better  that  stimulating  and  congenial 
surroundings  help  him  to  good  work.  History  shows 
us  moreover  that  few  artists  have  been  either  under- 
stood or  appreciated  by  their  contemporaries;  that 
with  a  very  few  exceptions  time  was  needed  before 
the  artist  or  his  work  received  a  fair  and  just  esti- 
mate. For  instance  the  monks  in  the  monastery 
of  San  Marco  in  Florence  saw  in  Fra  Angelico, 
"the  Blessed,"  only  a  devout  brother  with  a  deeply 
Teligious  sentiment  who  painted  his  own  tender  ex- 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  21 

pression  into  the  angels  on  his  canvas.  The  artist 
died,  but  the  part  of  himself  which  he  wrought  into 
his  pictures  still  lives  to  be  genuinely  appreciated 
and  loudly  acclaimed. 

The  rank  of  the  artist  then  is  determined  firstly  by 
his  grip  upon  Truth,  secondly  by  his  response  to 
his  environment,  thirdly  by  his  ability  to  stand  the 
test  of  time,  and  lastly,  and  most  fittingly,  by  the 
quality  of  effort  which  reveals  his  technical  skill, 
his  personal  worth,  and  his  vision  as  an  artist. 

In  Romans  8:5  the  writer  says,  "For  they  that 
are  after  the  flesh  do  mind  the  things  of  the  flesh; 
but  they  that  are  after  the  spirit  the  things  of  the 
spirit."  We  live  in  a  world  of  unseen  realities,  the 
world  of  thoughts  and  feelings.  But  "thoughts  are 
things,"  and  frequently  they  weigh  more  and  obtain 
far  more  in  the  making  of  a  man  than  do  all  the 
tangible  realities  which  surround  him.  Thoughts 
and  feelings  are  the  stuff  of  which  life  is  made. 
They  are  the  language  of  the  soul.  By  means  of 
them  we  follow  the  development  of  character,  the 
shaping  of  the  soul  which  is  the  one  great  purpose 
of  life.  The  artist's  work  deals  primarily  with 
thoughts  and  feelings.  Note  the  architect.  That 
building  stretching  to  the  skies  existed  first  in  the 


22  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

thought  of  the  artist;  each  successive  story  with  its 
ocean  of  detail  was  builded  first  in  the  mind  of  the 
master.  The  Greeks  beHeved  that  each  block  of 
marble  imprisoned  an  Apollo  or  a  Venus.  Phidias 
and  Praxiteles  were  rarely  disappointed  in  their 
quest.  But  the  beautiful  form  which  their  chisel 
liberated  lurked  not  in  the  stone  but  in  the  thought 
and  in  the  feeling  of  the  sculptor.  This  is  equally 
true  in  painting,  in  music,  and  in  literature.  There- 
fore the  essence  of  the  work  of  art  is  spiritual,  and 
the  artist  to  become  such  must  "mind  the  things  of 
the  spirit." 

Now  this  "thought-stuff"  from  which  a  work  of 
art  is  evolved,  finds  expression  in  the  five  different 
media,  architecture,  painting,  sculpture,  music,  and 
literature.  These  five  subjects  termed  the  fine  arts 
are  media,  subjects,  or  servants  through  which  the 
artist  expresses  the  "things  of  the  spirit." 

Of  these  five  subjects  the  first  self-expression  or 
revelation  of  the  spirit  was  made  through  architec- 
ture. Architecture  is  as  old  as  the  Egpytian  whom 
we  recognize  as  far  back  as  4000  B.  C.  Egypt 
taught  Greece,  who  in  turn  taught  Rome.  Greece 
and  Rome  were  the  world's  great  school-masters. 
Now  the  mission  of  the  teacher  is  to  teach  more  than 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  23 

that  which  he  himself  knows,  in  other  words,  to  in- 
spire his  pupils  to  cHmb  greater  heights  than  he  him- 
self has  achieved.  So  these  great  tutors  of  history 
found  themselves  distanced  by  children  of  a  larger 
and  a  later  growth.  We  have  said  that  the  archi- 
tect speaks  through  building  and  that  he  began  his 
work  in  the  morning  of  history.  He  was  a  mighty 
man  of  mystery  as  well  as  of  achievement.  To  him 
the  world,  past  and  present,  bows  in  homage  and  in 
reverence  for  he  builded  the  sphinx  and  the  pyra- 
mids and  the  tombs  of  ancient  Egypt.  Also  he  piled 
high  the  mighty  temples  of  Luxor  and  of  Karnak 
as  a  monument  to  his  knowledge  and  to  his  respect 
for  size.  The  architect  of  the  olden  time  could 
keep  a  secret,  for  his  brother  of  the  present  day, 
with  you  and  me,  stands  mute,  unable  to  solve  the 
riddle  of  the  sphinx. 

The  Egyptian  architect  gave  his  Grecian  brother 
an  interest  in  temples  and  tombs.  But  his  brother 
was  different.  Egypt  was  a  respecter  of  size,  Greece 
was  a  respecter  of  beauty.  Born  with  an  exquisite 
sense  of  fitness  and  proportion,  the  Greek  builded 
his  Parthenon,  his  Erechtheum,  and  his  Propylea. 
Also,  because  he  respected  the  body  as  well  as  the 
mind,  he  built  his  stadia  together  with  his  odeon. 


24  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

Then  Rome  made  Greece  a  captive.  Rome  cared 
less  for  the  mind  of  man  than  she  did  for  his  body, 
hence  the  thermae  or  pubHc  baths  in  Rome.  In 
order  to  feed  and  to  house  the  body  sumptuously, 
she  built  her  palaces,  among  them  the  Palace  of 
the  Caesars  on  the  Palatine.  Next,  because  the 
physical  man  needed  entertainment,  she  built  the 
Colosseum  and  the  Circus  Maximus.  As  the  phys- 
ical man  is  contentious  and  disputatious,  she  reared 
the  basilicas  or  law-courts.  Rome  was  fond  of 
display  even  in  every  day  business  so  she  made  the 
Trajan  and  the  Roman  Forum.  And  in  order  to 
honor  the  deeds  of  the  body,  she  shaped  and  carved 
the  triumphal  arches  of  Titus  and  of  Constantine. 

You  will  remember  that  the  Roman  body  had  a 
heart  of  stone  until  the  world's  Christ  gave  it  a 
heart  of  flesh.  Then  the  process  began  of  making 
a  Roman  citizen  into  a  Christian  gentleman.  The 
architect  was  a  part  of  this  process  and  a  faithful 
recorder.  He  fashioned  the  basilica  into  a  temple 
of  the  living  God.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  bar- 
barians were  rushing  down  upon  Rome,  coming  to 
destroy,  but  remaining  to  worship.  Back  to  their 
homes  they  went  with  this  wonderful  dynamic, — the 
knowledge  of  Salvation.     The  architect  went  with 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  25 

them.  He  was  the  progenitor  of  the  Cathedral 
builders,  who  built  divine  temples  on  earth  in  order 
to  lure  the  Divine  Spirit  down  from  heaven. 

The  Cathedral  builders  like  the  rest  of  the  world 
learned  through  their  mistaken  conclusions.  The 
new-thought  men,  their  brothers  of  the  Renaissance, 
in  time  ceased  to  attempt  to  woo  the  Divine  Spirit 
down,  instead,  they  sought  to  send  the  human  spirit 
up.  This  latter  spirit  continues  to  prevail  and  is 
felt  through  the  palaces  and  public  buildings  of 
modern  times. 

The  subject  through  which  the  painter  speaks  is 
painting.  He  too  began  his  work  in  Egypt  and  in 
the  morning  of  history.  His  work  was  carried  by 
the  Chaldeans  to  Greece  where  we  have  the  quaint 
story  of  Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius  in  their  effort  to 
outdo  each  other  in  skill.  To  the  many  friends  as- 
sembled Zeuxis  brought  a  painting  of  fruit  which 
he  placed  in  a  conspicuous  position.  So  accurately 
was  the  fruit  represented  that  the  birds  flew  down 
and  tried  to  eat  it.  Then  Zeuxis,  sure  that  his  su- 
premacy was  established,  pleased  and  proud,  asked 
Parrhasius  to  remove  the  veil  from  his  picture.  To 
his  chagrin  he  found  that  for  his  picture  Parrhasius 
had  painted  the  veil.     The  latter  was  then  given 


26  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

precedence  as  the  greater  artist  because  he  had  de- 
ceived not  the  birds — ^but  the  great  painter  Zeuxis. 
This  tells  us  that  while  the  Greeks  excelled  in  tech- 
nical skill  there  was  no  high  motive  in  their  painting. 
From  Greece  we  pass  to  Italy  where  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  in  Florence,  the  history  of  painting 
probably  begins.  The  subject  now  divides  itself 
into  the  following  geographical  divisions:  the  Italian 
School,  of  which  the  Florentines  and  Venetians  are 
the  most  famous;  the  French  School;  the  Spanish, 
the  Flemish,  the  Dutch,  the  German,  the  English, 
and  the  American  Schools  of  Art.  The  motive 
of  all  the  Italian  School  was  primarily  religion,  for 
at  this  time  painting  was  the  handmaiden  of  the 
Church.  Later  the  religious  motive  was  superseded 
by  classicism,  namely  an  interest  in  mythology  and 
in  the  history  of  Greece  and  Rome.  In  turn  classi- 
cism was  supplanted  by  Nature-study,  for  Nature 
became  not  only  the  model  for  a  convenient  and  at- 
tractive background,  as  in  the  Mona  Lisa,*  but  a 
veritable  storehouse  for  the  inspiration  and  instruc- 
tion of  all  artists  in  all  branches  of  painting.  These 
branches  are  eight  in  number:  mythological  paint- 
ing, or  the  representation  of  subjects  in  mythology; 

*Leonardo  da  Vinci's    great  portrait  about  which  so    much 
has  been  written  since  it  disappeared  from  the  Louvre. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  27 

historical  painting,  which  represents  the  events  of 
history  according  to  the  time,  the  place,  and  the 
setting;  portraiture,  wherein  the  spirit  of  the  artist 
speaks  to  the  spirit  of  the  onlooker  through  the  me- 
dium of  the  portrait ;  ideal  painting,  wherein  the  spirit 
of  the  artist  makes  itself  known  through  his  imagi- 
nation; landscape  painting,  which  interprets  the 
mood  of  the  artist  through  the  moods  of  nature; 
marine  painting,  which  paints  the  ocean  in  part; 
still-life  .painting,  which  represents  lifeless  things,  as 
dead  game,  or  subjects  which  do  not  possess  animal 
life  as  fruits,  flowers,  and  inanimate  objects. 

Sculpture  is  the  next  medium  in  the  Fine  Arts. 
The  sculptor  appeals  to  the  soul  of  the  onlooker  not 
only  through  the  eye  but  also  through  the  sense  of 
touch.  He  too  lived  in  early  history  in  Egypt  and 
expressed  himself  by  carving  in  outline  upon  the 
temples  and  tombs.  Also  he  worked  in  the  round, 
for  one  thousand  years  before  Christ  he  carved  in  the 
Ramesseum,  the  colossal  prostrate  statue  of  Rameses 
II.  This  statue,  the  largest  sculptured  figure  in  the 
world,  is  at  Thebes  in  Upper  Egypt.  It  weighs 
nine  hundred  tons. 

There  are  many  different  classes  of  sculpture.  The 
first  division  is  according  to  form.     This  includes 


28  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

the  outline  work  where  the  pattern  is  cut  in  the  stone ; 
it  includes  sculpture  in  the  round  entirely  detached 
from  a  background  Hke  the  Apollo  Belvedere  ;*  and 
all  forms  of  relief:  (a)  bas-relief  or  low-relief  cut 
from  a  background  like  the  cameos;  (b)  high-relief, 
namely,  statues  cut  very  nearly  in  the  round  but  at- 
tached to  a  background;  and  (c)  sunken-relief, 
namely  intaglios.  Another  classification  of  sculp- 
ture is  according  to  position :  standing  statues,  seated 
statues,  recumbent  figures,  and  equestrian  subjects. 
Lastly  sculpture  is  classified  according  to  material, 
namely,  marble,  bronze,  baked  clay  or  terra  cotta, 
plaster  of  Paris,  wood,  alabaster,  limestone  and  sand- 
stone. 

From  sculpture  we  turn  to  the  medium  of  music 
some  form  of  which  is  always  found  with  man. 
Indeed  no  group  of  men  is  too  limited  or  too  distant 
to  indulge  in  some  kind  of  music,  either  in  song,  or 
on  a  musical  instrument,  or  in  a  song  with  a  dance. 
In  primitive  conditions  it  is  always  part  of  a  social 
diversion  and  is  a  twin  activity  with  dancing.  More- 
over because  mimicry  and  pantomine  are  inherent 
in  man,  music  early  took  on  a  dramatic  character 
involving  personification,  plot,  and  action.     Primi- 


*A  famous  statute  in  the  Vatican. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  29 

tive  music  is  differentiated  into  Chinese,  Hindu, 
Greek,  Roman,  Mohammedan  music  and  others. 
Then  comes  the  rise  of  Christian  music  covering 
something  Hke  ten  centuries.  During  the  next  three 
hundred  years  vocal  music  arises  for  which  the  world 
owes  a  debt  to  the  Netherlanders.  Instrumental 
music  grew  apace  with  vocal  music  and  developed 
early  the  madrigal  and  part-song.  By  the  seven- 
teenth century,  the  early  musical  drama  had  taken 
form  in  Italy,  in  Germany,  in  France  and  in  Eng- 
land with  interesting  results.  The  craving  for  dra- 
matic expression  which  found  vent  in  the  mediaeval 
plays,  also  produced  the  first  operas  and  oratorios. 
The  French  expanded  dramatic  expression  into  the 
French  ballet  and  emphasized  the  dancing.  The 
Germans  used  this  tendency  toward  dramatic  expres- 
sion in  the  Singspiel  where  songs  are  introduced  into 
the  spoken  dialogue.  In  England  at  this  time,  the 
court  society  in  disguise  acted  some  fanciful  story 
with  much  dancing,  singing,  and  playing  on  musical 
instruments.     This  was  called  the  Masque. 

After  this  the  pendulum  of  popular  interest  swung 
back  naturally  to  church  music  and  the  great  church 
cantatas  and  Passions  were  developed.  Lastly  came 
the  culmination  of  the  drama  into  the  opera  as  we 


30  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

know  it  to-day.  Also  in  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries  are  found  the  lutist,  the  organist,  the 
vioHnist,  and  the  celHst  respectively.  In  the  eight- 
eenth century  we  have  the  pianists  with  whose  work 
we  are  all  famiHar.  Sacred  music  and  the  opera 
comique  grew  apace  until  the  later  nineteenth  cen- 
tury when  the  "Wagnerian  Triumph**  made  the  last 
great  epoch  in  musical  art. 

This  in  brief  is  the  story  of  the  development  of 
music.  It  has  of  course  many  related  subjects,  the 
majority  of  them  being  divisions  of  the  music  as  a 
whole.  The  formal  part  of  music  is  largely  mechan- 
ical but  the  highest  part  has  its  origin  in  the  soul. 
It  is  this  inner  thought  which  finding  expression 
through  outward  form  gives  meaning  and  breadth  to 
music. 

Lastly  we  come  to  literature,*  the  fine  art  with 
which  people  are  most  familiar.  Literature  is  an 
expression  of  the  best  thought  in  all  ages.  The  form 
of  expression  is  of  two  kinds,  poetry  and  prose.  The 
first  divides  again  into  lyric  and  epic  poetry.  Lyr- 
ics are  a  chronicle  of  feelings  and  epics  are  a  treat- 
ment of  facts.     Prose  has  four  sub-heads,  the  drama. 


*A  discussion  of  literature  is  omitted  owing  to  lack  of  time 
and  space. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  31 

the  essay,  the  novel,  and  history.  All  literature  can 
be  classified  in  at  least  one  of  these  divisions.  The 
difference  between  these  groups  is  not  always  so 
apparent  that  they  can  be  recognized,  and  there  are 
many  compositions  which  seem  to  occupy  middle 
ground  as  blank  verse  or  a  newspaper  article.  How- 
ever literature  is  as  broad  as  the  experience  of  man. 
No  epoch,  no  place,  nor  condition  has  failed  to  find 
a  place  on  its  pages.  It  is  large  enough  and  varied 
enough  to  concern  every  phase  of  human  existence. 

Such  is  the  nature  of  the  work  of  art.  Primarily 
it  is  a  thing  of  the  spirit.  This  impulse  finds  ex- 
pression through  architecture,  painting,  sculpture, 
music  or  literature.  But  whatever  the  medium,  the 
"thought-stuff"  from  which  it  is  made  is  the  language 
of  the  artist  soul. 

From  the  nature  of  the  work  of  art  we  turn  to 
the  quality.  We  can  determine  this  by  asking  four 
questions.  First  is  the  work  of  art  representative. 
A  work  of  art  is  representative  when  it  reflects  truth- 
fully the  standards  of  the  times  in  which  it  is  made. 
For  example  if  it  is  a  picture  painted  by  Andrea  del 
Sarto,*  we  expect  the  drawing,  the  composition  and 

*A  Florentine  painter  of  the  High  Renaissance  who  was 
called  by  his  contemporaries  "the  faultless,"  because  he  was  a 
master  of  the  art  of  painting. 


32  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

the  color,  in  short  the  "handling**  of  the  picture,  to 
tell  us  that  he  was  one  of  the  greatest  technicians 
of  his  day.  On  the  other  hand  in  the  work  of  Giot- 
to, the  greatest  name  in  the  Gothic  School,  we  ex- 
pect to  find  flaws  in  the  proportion  and  in  the  per- 
spective of  his  pictures.  Thus  to  be  representative 
an  artist  need  not  be  cognizant  of  all  that  there  is 
to  be  known  about  his  subject,  he  must  merely  be 
up  with  the  times,  skilled  in  the  knowledge  acquired 
thus  far. 

The  second  question  which  determines  the  qual- 
ity of  a  work  of  art  is  this,  is  the  production  ade- 
quate. Just  here  we  meet  the  principle  of  selection 
which  runs  through  all  art.  In  other  words  does 
the  subject  which  the  artist  has  produced  represent 
not  all  that  he  knows,  but  the  best  that  he  knows.- 
Are  the  accessories  of  the  picture,  of  the  building, 
of  the  sculpture,  truthful,  fitting,  and  harmonious. 
Has  he  put  the  emphasis  on  his  work  in  the  place 
where  is  it  most  important.  Has  he  so  completely 
expressed  himself  that  the  onlooker  cannot  fail  to 
find  his  meaning. 

After  the  work  of  art  is  proved  to  be  representa- 
tive and  adequate,  the  next  question  is  naturally  is  it 
excellent.        Excellence  is  a  comparative   quality. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  33 

That  is,  the  excellent  work  of  one  artist  may  be  far 
below  the  poorest  standards  of  another.  Excellence 
as  here  used  is  not  a  personal  quality,  it  is  determined 
by  the  standards  of  the  time  in  which  the  artist  lives 
and  is  generally  established  by  the  favorable  criti- 
cism of  his  peers.  Speaking  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  onlooker,  to  be  excellent,  the  artist  must  pro- 
duce such  a  high  standard  of  work  that  it  will  be 
given  precedence  by  others  less  gifted.  The  last 
question  which  determines  the  quality  of  a  work  of 
art  concerns  the  time  element,  is  it  lasting.  In  other 
words  will  it  endure,  will  it  outlast  the  moment.  Has 
it  the  stability  to  insure  its  permanence.  Often  a 
later  generation  renounces  what  a  former  one  has 
embraced.  Again  a  later  generation  will  exploit 
what  a  previous  one  has  condemned.  But  this  one 
principle  prevails,  namely,  that  true  merit  is  a  perma- 
nent quantity  and  when  it  once  enters  any  subject 
or  activity  it  endures  till  the  end.  These  four  tests 
then  determine  the  quality  of  a  work  of  art.  Let  us 
now  turn  to  its  appeal. 

The  appeal  of  the  work  of  art  is  determined  by 
its  effect  upon  the  onlooker.  It  depends  primarily 
upon  the  degree  to  which  the  artist  has  stamped  him- 
self upon  his  work;  upon  the  nature  and  upon  the 


34  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

power  of  the  message  which  the  work  of  art  reveals. 
The  appeal  in  a  true  sense  is  independent  of  the 
spectator  or  of  the  listener.  That  is  to  say  that  the 
meaning  is  there,  the  appeal,  namely  the  message, 
resides  in  the  production  apparently  independent  of 
the  artist.  The  nature  and  extent  of  the  response, 
as  we  shall  see  later,  rests  mainly  with  the  people 
upon  whom  the  impression  is  made. 

From  the  appeal  of  the  work  of  art,  our  attention 
naturally  shifts  to  the  onlooker,  to  his  nature,  to  his 
attitude  toward  productions  of  art,  to  his  response 
to  such  productions,  and  to  his  agency  or  the  use 
which  he  makes  of  the  appeal  of  art. 

First,  then,  as  to  the  nature  of  the  onlooker;  if 
he  is  an  artist,  we  already  know  something  of  his 
temperament.  The  nature  of  the  artist  very  fre- 
quently makes  itself  felt.  No  less  a  genius  than 
Michael  Angelo,  whom  the  world  calls  a  greater 
painter  than  sculptor,  although  his  personal  prefer- 
ence was  for  the  latter,  claims  that  he  imbibed  his 
love  for  sculpture  with  his  milk.  This  is  interesting 
because  his  foster-mother  was  the  wife  of  a  stone- 
mason. Mozart  was  a  paragon  in  music  at  a  very 
early  age,  and  the  architect  Hoban,  who  designed 
the  White  House  at  Washington,  very  early  showed 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  35 

special  aptitude  for  architecture.  With  this  precoc- 
ity of  the  artist  in  the  fine  art  which  appeals  to  him, 
goes  a  higher  quality  of  attention  to  and  enjoyment 
of  art  products  of  that  nature,  while  in  other  branches 
he  may  be  below  the  ordinary  spectator  in  a  capacity 
for  understanding  and  appreciation.  The  great  paint- 
ers like  Leonardo  and  Michael  Angelo*  are  an  ex- 
ception to  this  for  they  were  marvels  of  versatility; 
but  the  tendency  of  this  age  is  toward  specialization 
and  the  geniuses  at  the  piano  are  not  likely  to  be 
kings  with  the  pallette.  This  is  true  however  that 
training  in  one  art  is  excellent  preparation  for  the 
study  of  a  related  art,  so  perhaps  the  artist  at  all 
times  has  an  interest  and  an  attention  above  that  of 
the  ordinary  onlooker. 

However  the  great  majority  of  people  are  not  art- 
ists. They  merely  take  pictures  for  granted,  walk- 
ing through  the  galleries  with  a  matter-of-fact  air, 
pausing  before  a  canvas  unusual  in  color,  drawing, 
or  subject,  moved  merely  by  curiosity  and  passing 
it  by  with  no  thought  of  its  meaning  or  skill,  smiling 
slightly  or  shrugging  their  shoulders.  If  they  enjoy 
any  picture,  it  is  mainly  through  the  associations 
which  the  canvas  brings  to  their  mind.     Seldom 

*The  two  greatest  Florentine  painters  of  the  High  Renaissance. 


36  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

does  the  true  meaning  of  a  picture,  the  message  of 
the  artist,  speak  to  the  casual  onlooker  in  the  galler- 
ies, not  because  it  has  no  message  for  him,  but  be- 
cause his  nature  is  such  that  he  has  not  felt  the  need 
of  such  an  expression.  The  time  may  come  when 
these  pictures  will  appeal  to  him,  but  not  until  his 
nature  has  changed  and  he  recognizes  their  mission. 
Such  an  experience  is  not  confined  to  pictures.  The 
nature  of  the  onlooker  manifests  itself  with  books, 
with  statuary,  with  music,  and  with  great  buildings. 
The  large  majority  of  persons  at  times  and  fre- 
quently during  a  great  part  of  their  lives,  is  abso- 
lutely indifferent  to  the  mighty  treasures  of  art. 

Fortunately  for  art  and  for  the  onlooker,  a  per- 
son's nature  changes.  Experience  brings  depth  and 
insight  and  appreciation.  The  nature  therefore  be- 
comes refined  and  strengthened,  and  looks  upon  the 
art  world  with  new  eyes.  This  difference  in  the 
individual  at  different  times  we  call  his  attitude. 

A  great  many  elements  combine  to  produce  an 
attitude.  Heredity,  environment,  education,  and 
experience  all  leave  their  stamp  upon  the  man  and 
determine  his  degree  of  receptivity  to  the  fine  arts. 
Here  again  we  mark  the  difference  between  the  art- 
ist and  the  rank  and  file  of  men  of  coarser  mould. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  37 

We  have  said  that  his  nature  determines  the  quaHty 
of  his  attention  and  his  interest.  So  in  turn  his  at- 
tention and  interest  determine  his  attitude.  The 
artist  is  more  critical  or  more  appreciative  as  the  re- 
sult of  his  interest  and  his  attention.  Moreover  his 
attitude  changes  in  character  as  he  advances  in  knowl- 
edge of  and  in  experience  in  his  art.  We  have  at 
home  an  oil  painting  which  is  dear  to  us.  TTie  art- 
ist finds  no  pleasure  in  it  because  her  attitude  has 
changed.  An  audience  applauds  a  singer  because 
they  have  enjoyed  his  songs  but  a  vocal  teacher  near 
by  has  found  no  pleasure  in  the  rendition  because 
his  attitude  was  entirely  different.  Again  the  atti- 
tude of  the  onlooker  changes.  When  the  concerts 
were  first  given  in  Central  Park,  New  York  City, 
the  popular  music  was  ragtime.  Now,  the  people 
demand  not  only  the  best  music  but  the  best  of  the 
best.  TTieir  attitude  has  changed.  The  differences 
in  attitude  quoted  thus  far  are  the  result  of  education. 
There  are  other  causes.  In  a  recent  novel,  the  her- 
oine receives  a  book  written  by  a  man  toward  whom 
she  is  wholly  indifferent.  The  volume  bores  her. 
Presently  she  falls  in  love  with  the  author,  then  the 
book  becomes  intensely  interesting.  Her  feeling  has 
changed  her  attitude.     A  rich  man  in  a  great  city 


38  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

found  an  old  chum.  The  chum  was  poor  but  he 
could  play  the  violin.  The  rich  man  was  restless 
and  dissatisfied.  His  friend  played  to  him  on  the. 
violin.  The  rich  man  became  peaceful  and  at  rest. 
We  might  call  this  a  happy  accident  which  changed 
the  rich  man's  attitude. 

From  the  attitude  of  the  onlooker  we  turn  to  his 
response,  a  term  which  is  frequently  confused  with 
the  former,  although  they  are  not  identical.  A  great 
many  people  never  go  beyond  a  certain  attitude. 
Thy  are  not  moved  sufficiently  to  make  a  response. 
Perhaps  an  incident  will  make  the  difference  clear. 
The  Venus  de  Milo  is  in  the  Louvre  in  Paris.  It  is 
separated  from  the  other  statuary  in  the  gallery  of 
sculpture.  One  day  when  it  was  time  to  close  the 
Louvre  the  janitor  made  his  rounds  and  came  to  the 
Venus  de  Milo.  Several  people  rushed  up  for  a 
hurried  glance  at  the  far-famed  statue.  Some  pass- 
ed by  without  discovering  her,  others  hurried  fran- 
tically around  her,  still  others  stood  in  front  reading 
Baedeker  with  now  and  then  a  glance  at  the  goddess. 
Presently  they  were  all  gone — except  the  janitor. 
Alone  he  looked  long  and  earnestly  at  the  Venus. 
Then  he  raised  his  cap  reverently  and  went  out. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  39 

During  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago,  many  fa- 
mous pictures  were  exhibited  and  the  newspapers 
carried  on  a  voting  contest  to  determine  the  most 
popular  one.  The  majority  vote  was  for  "Break- 
ing Homes  Ties".  Doubtless  you  know  the  pic- 
ture. The  scene  is  the  interior  of  a  country  kitchen. 
A  farmer  lad  stands  before  his  mother, — a  mother 
who  carries  marks  of  sacrifice  and  hard  work.  Her 
toil-worn  hands  are  on  his  shoulders,  and  her  mother 
heart  shows  in  her  eyes  as  she  speaks  the  last  words 
of  caution  and  affection.  The  father  stands  near  by 
ready  to  take  his  boy  to  the  station,  and  he  too  feels 
the  agony  of  the  parting.  That  picture  called  forth 
a  response.  Until  recently  the  United  States  has 
been  a  land  of  farmers.  Nearly  all  the  city-bred 
people  have  been  intimately  connected  with  farm  life, 
either  through  their  own  experience  or  through  the 
experience  of  their  ancestors.  That  picture  stirred 
the  hearts  of  the  onlookers  because  it  called  up  a 
heart-knowledge  of  which  most  of  them  were  justly 
proud. 

At  Melrose  in  Scotland  for  years  the  keeper  of 
the  Abbey  was  a  kindly  old  gentleman  who  took 
personal  interest  in  all  the  tourists.  He  spent  the 
greater  part  of  his  time  at  the  ruins  pointing  out  beau- 


40  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

tiful  bits  of  tracery,  interpreting  the  fallen  panels 
of  the  choir  screen  and  repeating  Scott's  **Lay  of 
the  Last  Minstrel."  Guests  who  came  there  indif- 
ferent departed  impressed.  The  thoughtless  remain- 
ed to  admire  and  to  worship.  This  was  his  life,  his 
mission.  The  response  of  the  tourists  was  not  due 
primarily  to  Melrose  Abbey,  by  far  the  most  beauti- 
ful in  Scotland,  but  to  fellowship  with  this  old  gen- 
tleman whose  heart  was  in  the  ruin  and  whom  to 
know  was  to  respect  and  to  admire. 

It  is  perhaps  a  waste  of  time  to  speak  of  the  re- 
sponse to  music  because  it  is  such  an  universal  ex- 
perience. A  band  goes  with  the  army  to  battle 
because  their  response  to  the  music  will  make  them 
better  soldiers.  Walter  Damrosch  has  won  fame 
through  teaching  the  children  in  the  slums  of  New 
York  City  to  sing.  He  leads  them  in  a  large  chorus. 
The  response  of  these  children  is  greater  even  than 
his  anticipation  warranted  because  the  music  appeals 
to  them. 

Thus  we  find  that  the  onlooker  will  respond  to 
sculpture,  painting,  architecture,  and  music,  and  the 
fact  that  he  will  respond  to  literature  needs  no  com- 
ment. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  41 

What  then  is  the  use  of  all  this  equipment.  Why 
has  the  onlooker  a  potential  nature,  a  progressive 
attitude,  and  a  ready  response  to  the  fine  arts.  Sim- 
ply for  this  reason,  that  he  may  be  an  agent  in  the 
propagation  of  these  branches  of  knowledge.  There- 
fore if  we  are  to  live  up  to  our  highest  possibilities 
of  usefulness,  we  must  come  into  such  a  relation  with 
the  fine  arts  that  our  attention  will  be  keen,  our  sym- 
pathies ready,  our  reason  alert,  and  our  judgments 
rational,  remembering  that  the  fine  arts  are  primarily 
a  search  for  the  Good,  the  True,  and  the  Beautiful. 
The  pursuit  of  these  three  departments  of  human 
interest  leads  into  unknown  paths  the  full  extent  of 
which  has  never  been  explored.  The  musician  will 
tell  you  that  there  is  more  in  music  than  he  can  ex- 
press. Phidias  and  Praxiteles  always  believed  that 
there  were  more  beautiful  Aphrodites  imprisoned  in 
the  blocks  of  marble  than  those  which  their  chisels 
had  liberated.  The  great  Leonardo  was  so  dis- 
appointed in  even  his  best  pictures  that  it  was  his 
habit  to  destroy  them  when  completed.  This  is  why 
there  are  so  few  (five)  of  his  paintings  extant  to-day. 
No  writer  is  satisfied  with  his  productions.  Milton, 
Tennyson,  and  Shakespeare  all  tried  again  and  again 
hoping  to  do  better.    And  the  Cathedral  builders 


42  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

after  striving  for  centuries  to  build  a  sanctuary  fit  for 
the  residence  of  the  Holy  Sprit,  after  building  Can- 
terbury, Amiens,  and  Cologne,  gave  up  in  despair. 
There  is  no  end  to  the  pursuit  of  art. 

If  such  is  the  character  of  the  fine  arts,  if  we  are 
fashioned  with  possibilities  of  understanding  and  ap- 
preciating the  works  of  art,  it  is  easy  to  conclude  that 
they  have  an  ethical  value  in  man's  experience. 
Therefore  is  not  an  appreciation  of  art  a  duty,  and 
as  a  duty,  a  fundamental  part  of  education.  More- 
over the  onlooker  who  has  this  appreciation  has  not 
only  vastly  increased  his  own  ability  to  enjoy,  but 
also  he  has  achieved  possibilities  for  service  in  help- 
ing others  to  develop  their  capacities  for  pleasure 
and  vision. 

Thus  ends  the  discussion  of  the  three  elements  in 
art,  namely  the  artist,  the  work  of  art,  and  the  on- 
looker. In  the  presentation  of  the  artist,  we  aimed 
to  discuss  his  nature,  his  method  of  expression  and 
his  rank.  The  work  of  art  was  treated  from  three 
standpoints,  namely  its  nature,  its  quality,  and  its 
appeal.  The  last  topic  was  the  onlooker.  The 
discussion  had  four  sub-heads :  they  were  the  nature, 
the  attitude,  the  response,  and  the  agency  of  the  on- 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  43 

looker.  From  a  discussion  of  the  elements  of  art 
we  pass  to  the  next  large  topic  in  this  chapter  namely, 
the  development  of  art. 

The  development  of  art  as  a  topic  suggests  four 
interrogatives,  namely,  when,  where,  how,  and  why 
have  the  fine  arts  developed.  First,  when  did  the 
fine  arts  appear.  Among  the  ruins  of  old  Babylonia, 
Chaldea,  and  Assyria  are  bas-reliefs,  which  suggest 
that  they  knew  and  credited  the  story  of  the  Garden 
of  Eden.*  Old  tablets  have  also  been  found  veri- 
fying the  account  of  Noah  and  the  Flood.  These 
records  are  preserved  to  us  through  the  art  of  the 
people  of  that  early  day.  The  Egyptian  is  the  old- 
est man  whose  civilization  we  can  study,**  and  we 
find  that  away  back  in  the  morning  of  history  he 
was  an  architect,  a  musician,  a  sculptor,  a  painter, 
and  a  writer.  So  art  has  age  to  recommend  it. 
Indeed  we  suspect  that  art  had  its  beginnings  with 
man  and  was  the  best  expression  of  his  best  skill  to 
meet  the  needs  of  existence. 

Man  is  differentiated  from  other  creatures  of  a 
high  order  as  a  worshipful  animal.     Art  seems  from 

*Many  have  seen  this  rehef  thrown  upon  the  screen  by  Dr. 
Banks,  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  in  his  lecture,  "The  Bible 
and  the  Spade." 

**ArcheoIoei8ts  are  fast  uncovering  a  civilization  in  Palestine 
which  is  equally  ancient. 


44  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

the  first  to  have  been  associated  with  the  worshipful 
part  of  him.  The  Egyptian  built  temples  and  tombs 
and  used  therein  the  arts  of  building,  carving,  and 
painting.  The  first  two  are  especially  noteworthy. 
He  taught  the  Greek.  The  Greek  also  builded 
temples  and  tombs,  but  his  worship  carried  him  fur- 
ther along  in  the  arts.  For  instance  the  Greek  games 
were  a  part  of  their  religion,  so  the  sculptor  fashioned 
that  great  class  of  statuary  of  the  athletes*  to  ex- 
press their  worship.  The  worship  of  the  Romans  was 
closely  associated  with  their  heroes.  Tlie  statue  of 
Augustus  Caesar  illustrates  this.  Then  the  Chris- 
tian Church  mounted  the  broad  foundation  laid  by 
the  Roman  Empire  and  she  made  painting  her  hand- 
maiden. When  she  had  a  new  baptism  of  faith 
she  spoke  in  terms  of  music,  while  Luther  led  the 
Reformation  by  means  of  Literature.  Therefore 
art  knows  no  bounds  in  terms  of  time.  There  have 
of  course  been  periods  when  art  has  developed  more 
rapidly  than  at  others,  for  instance  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  period  of  the  High  Renaissance.  In 
this  connection  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  fine  arts 
develop  best  in  times  of  peace.  They  may  re- 
ceive their  stimulus,  their  character  and  their  ideas 


*The  Discus  Thrower  and  the  Wrestlers  are  fine  examples. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  45 

from  troublous  times  of  war  like  the  Crusades,  but 
the  artist  at  all  times  has  done  his  best  work  when 
the  world  has  been  at  peace. 

Where  did  art  develop?  The  answer  has  been 
suggested,  for  if  art  knows  no  time  limits  her  uni- 
versality is  established.  The  artistic  tendency  is 
inherent  in  man.  Wherever  he  may  be  there  are 
found  the  beginnings  of  art.  Soon  standards  of 
taste  develop  and  prevail.  The  development  of 
taste  leads  very  naturally  into  the  department  of  art. 
This  artistic  expression  varies  with  the  habitat  and 
occupation  of  the  people.  Men  who  are  far  down  in 
the  scale  of  civilization  seldom  acquire  an  interest  in 
the  fine  arts,  but  their  artistic  tendencies  are  potential 
and  easily  attain  to  skill  in  the  lesser  arts  of  weaving, 
pottery,  and  basket  making.  Nor  are  the  fine  arts 
the  property  alone  of  the  Christian  nations.  Rath- 
er they  belong  to  all  creeds  and  races  wherever  the 
instinct  to  worship  has  found  expression  in  an  organ- 
ized and  established  religion. 

With  the  universality  of  art  in  terms  of  time  and 
space  established  we  consider  the  next  interrogative, 
how.  We  have  said  that  man  expresses  himself  in 
an  effort  to  meet  his  needs  and  that  his  needs  differ 
according  to  his  locality.     Naturally  then  the  people 


46  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

in  San  Salvador,  south  of  the  Equator,  will  express 
themselves  differently  from  the  people  in  Greenland, 
south  of  the  North  Pole.  Differences  in  climate 
are  fundamental  in  the  expression  of  art.  In  the 
Temperate  Zones  the  development  of  art  is  the  most 
thorough  and  varied.  In  these  two  zones  the  high- 
est point  has  been  reached  in  each  of  the  fine  arts. 
A  different  spirit  characterizes  different  ages  and  at 
various  times  has  made  great  progress  in  the  five 
different  lines.  For  instance  certain  of  the  Caesars, 
Trajan  and  Hadrian,  were  great  builders,  and  cer- 
tain of  the  Popes,  like  Sixtus  IV,  and  Julius  II,  were 
great  patrons  of  art.  (It  was  the  former  who  added 
the  Sistine  Chapel  to  the  Vatican  in  order  to  accom- 
modate the  works  of  the  greatest  painters.  And  it 
was  Julius  II  who  commissioned  Michael  Angelo 
to  build  a  great  mausoleum,  for  which  his  famous 
Moses  was  carved.)  Nicholas  V  established  the 
Vatican  Library,  intending  it  to  be  the  greatest  col- 
lection of  books  ever  gathered.  Many  of  the  great 
kings  of  the  North,  like  Charlemagne,  and  later 
the  House  of  Valois,  have  given  an  impetus  to  the 
arts.  Charles  I  of  England  who  was  beheaded 
spent  so  much  money  on  the  fine  arts  that  he  incensed 
his  subjects.     This  generous  patronage  by  the  rul- 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  47 

ing  class  both  in  church  and  state  has  done  much 
toward  bringing  about  the  present  high  development 
which  prevails  throughout  the  civilized  world.  An- 
other agent  in  their  progress  has  been  the  artists' 
schools  and  guilds.  We  have  already  defined  a 
school  of  painting  as  a  group  of  men  who  for  one  of 
three  reasons  had  much  in  common  in  their  manner 
of  painting.  The  guilds  were  even  broader.  The 
Painters'  Guild  and  the  Goldsmiths'  Guild  and 
others  were  open  to  all  men  who  had  attained  rank 
in  a  certain  branch  of  the  fine  arts,  regardless  of  their 
manner  of  work.  This  system  prevails  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  The  Beaux  Arts  in  Paris  is  open  to 
artists  from  any  country.  So  we  find  schools  and 
localities  to-day  given  over  to  the  propagation  and 
the  conservation  of  the  fine  arts.  Summarizing  this 
topic  of  how  art  developed  we  find  that  it  had  its 
beginning  in  the  need  of  man;  that  in  certain  for- 
tunate localities,  namely  the  Temperate  Zones,  the 
expression  of  man's  best  was  of  a  progressive  nature. 
Next  that  certain  occasions  like  Constantine's  adopt- 
ing Christianity  and  the  Crusades  gave  an  impetus 
to  art,  which  made  itself  felt  when  peace  had  sup- 
planted war.  Then,  that  great  leaders  of  Church 
and  State  have  been  for  centuries  patrons  of  art. 


48  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

And  lastly  that  artistic  expression  has  been  fostered 
and  trained  by  schools  and  guilds  even  down  to  the 
present  day. 

The  last  interrogative  under  this  topic  is  why ;  why 
has  art  developed.  This  question  seems  more  stupid 
than  searching,  inasmuch  as  we  know  that  no  tend- 
ency in  man  remains  stationary,  that  it  either  pro- 
gresses or  retrogrades  and  that  retrogression  means 
death.  We  have  found  that  this  tendency  has  an 
universal  expression  and  in  certain  favored  localities 
has  reached  a  high  development.  We  see  the  results 
of  the  art-impulse  everywhere  and  now  we  are  look- 
ing for  causes.  In  that  this  tendency  to  self  expres- 
sion is  innate,  it  must  as  a  part  of  man*s  native  equip- 
ment have  a  special  use.  This  use  we  conjecture 
to  be  to  lead  him  to  discover  God*s  laws  in  the  realm 
of  aesthetics.  The  Father  of  us  all  whose  mentality 
is  such  that  the  incidents  and  the  people  in  a  thousand 
years  are  as  clear  and  as  near  to  Him  as  is  man's  ex- 
perience in  a  day,  expresses  Himself  in  terms  of 
beauty.  What  is  more  beautiful  than  Nature,  or 
the  world  in  which  we  live !  No  beauty  ever  equals 
the  sunrise  and  the  sunset,  the  dome  of  the  sky  and 
the  star-lit  heavens  in  the  night  time.  Nature  is 
always  beautiful,  even  when  her  mood  changes,  as 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERM  49 

in  the  rain  shower,  the  snow  storm,  the  bare  trees 
in  winter,  the  scarlet  foHage  in  the  fall,  and  the  leafy 
bloom  of  the  spring  and  summer.  Go  where  you 
will  and  when  you  will,  you  never  catch  nature  in 
any  other  garb  than  one  of  beauty.  The  eye  is 
made  to  see  this  beauty  just  as  the  ear  is  intended 
to  hear  the  music  of  the  world.  But  eye  and  ear 
need  training  and  even  at  their  best  affirm  that  the 
world  of  beauty  for  them  has  hardly  been  entered 
because  they  see  so  much  beyond.  Now  the  Master 
speaks  in  terms  of  beauty,  and  man  in  a  measure  at 
least  responds  to  this  beauty.  So  perhaps  the  rea- 
son for  this  artistic  impulse  is  that  through  his  aesthet- 
ic sense,  the  soul  of  man  shall  grow  into  an  appre- 
ciation, an  understanding,  yes  into  a  likeness  of  God 
the  Father. 

Last  of  all  in  this  explanatory  chapter,  we  come 
to  the  scope  of  the  subject.  As  has  been  indicated 
in  the  topic,  the  Nature  of  the  Work  of  Art,  each 
of  the  five  fine  arts  has  great  breadth.  For  in- 
stance we  have  learned  that  music  is  a  world  lan- 
guage, the  one  great  universal  language  which  is 
independent  of  words.  Moreover  that  the  formal 
side  of  music  covers  very  many  related  subjects. 
This  is  equally  true  in  painting.     Since  Masaccio's 


50  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

time,  1401-1428,  all  artists  have  studied  anatomy 
as  well  as  form,  color,  light,  and  shade,  and  the 
atmosphere.  Joseph  Mallord  William  Turner, 
1775-1851,  the  great  English  landscape  painter, 
became  deranged  from  studying  the  sun.  Leonardo 
was  a  master  of  chiaroscuro  for  "he  studied  shadows 
that  he  might  catch  their  darkness  and  the  sunlight 
to  overtake  the  sun."  Michael  Angelo  was  a  mas- 
ter of  form  for  in  it  he  spoke  in  terms  of  passion  and 
strength.  Sculpture,  architecture,  and  literature  are 
equally  broad.  The  artists  in  each  spend  the  best 
efforts  of  a  life  time  and  feel  themselves  mere  novices 
at  the  close.  Therefore,  considering  the  great 
breadth  of  the  fine  arts,  this  short  series  of  lectures 
cannot  hope  to  be  exhaustive  or  complete.  In  view 
of  this  we  have  selected  a  simple  method  of  presen- 
tation aiming  merely  to  introduce  the  subjects  through 
a  brief  historical  sketch  and  to  leave  with  you  definite 
knowledge  about  the  best  products  in  each  division 
of  the  four  fine  arts.  With  a  word  of  encourage- 
ment to  any  who  are  disheartened  by  the  formidable 
titles  of  the  chapters,  we  welcome  you,  into  a  system- 
atic study  of  the  Appreciation  of  Art. 


Chapter  II 

Architecture. 

Build  thee  more  stately  mansions,  O,  my  soul, 

As  the  swift  seasons  roll ! 

Leave  thy  low- vaulted  past! 

Let  each  new  temple,  nobler  than  the  last. 

Shut  thee  from  heaven  with  a  dome  more  vast. 

Till  thou  at  length  art  free. 

Leaving  thine  outgrown  shell  by  life's  unresting  sea ! 

—Oliver  Wendell  Holmes, 

The  Theory  of  Architecture. 
Architecture  is  the  oldest  of  the  Fine  Arts,  because 
it  is  closely  associated  with  man's  needs.  To  build 
was  an  early  necessity,  and  to  build  beautifully  was 
in  accord  with  the  nature  of  man.  Architecture  is 
a  record  not  of  man's  efforts  to  build,  but  of  his  ef- 
forts to  build  beautifully.  Therefore,  it  is  not  a  rec- 
ord of  utility,  but  of  beauty,  although  beauty  in  arch- 
itecture has  generally  been  accompanied  by  elements 
of  stability  and  of  utility.  Architecture  touches 
man's  experience  at  every  point.  First,  he  builds 
because  he  must.  Second,  he  builds  the  best  that 
he  knows  that  he  need  not  repeat  the  process  very 

51 


52  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

soon.  Third,  he  builds  as  conveniently  as  possible, 
and  fourth,  and  last,  he  makes  it  look  as  well  as  he 
can.  This  last  effort  allies  his  work  with  the  Fine 
Arts  and  is  called  Architecture. 

Man's  need  in  building  is  of  various  kinds.  His 
first  care  is  to  build  a  home,  a  place  of  shelter  and 
protection  for  his  person.  Next,  he  builds  a  tomb, 
a  shelter  for  his  body  after  death.  Then  he  builds 
a  temple,  a  place  in  which  to  worship.  Later,  he 
has  a  need  for  places  of  amusement  and  of  business 
and  later  still,  he  adorns  his  cities  with  memorials  like 
triumphal  arches,  columns  and  statues.*  Lastly,  as 
his  life  grows  more  complex,  he  builds  to  meet  the 
varied  needs  of  a  new  civilization.  These  many 
kinds  of  architecture  involve  a  large  expenditure  of 
time  and  money,  and  engage  the  services  of  more 
men  than  any  other  universal  interest  and  occupation 
except  agriculture.  Moreover,  many  kinds  of  arch- 
itecture call  for  a  different  style  of  building,  and  style 
is  not  a  constant  quantity,  for  it  varies  with  the  years. 
For  instance,  men  in  the  fifteenth  century  before 
Christ  built  temples  and  tombs  of  an  entirely  differ- 
ent nature  than  did  the  men  in  the  fifteenth  century 
after  Christ.     This  difference  in  style  obtains  in  all 

*The  latter  is  the  middle  ground  between  sculpture  and  archi- 
tecture. 


ARCHITECTURE  53 

classes  of  buildings,  in  different  periods  of  history, 
while  buildings  of  the  same  class,  built  in  the  same 
period  of  time,  have  come  to  have  a  widely  varying 
style.  Again,  locality  has  much  to  do  with  the  style, 
for  temples  in  Japan  are  at  all  times  vastly 
different  from  temples  in  India,  not  only  in  plan,  but 
in  material.  The  style  of  each  is  the  result  of  the 
resources  of  the  country  in  which  it  is  placed,  and 
of  the  needs  of  the  surrounding  civilization.  Then, 
too,  the  style  changes  with  the  growth  of  the  people 
according  to  their  larger  needs.  It  happens  fre- 
quently that  it  is  entirely  outgrown  and  a  very  dif- 
ferent one  is  produced.  Even  if  a  change  does  not 
take  place,  a  style  which  outlives  its  usefulness  is 
sure  to  decline. 

Also,  the  fundamental  element  in  the  style  of  a 
building  is  its  plan.  In  other  words,  style  refers  to 
the  whole  building,  characterizing  not  only  its  shape 
and  size,  but  the  materials  of  which  it  is  made  and 
the  nature  of  the  decorations  of  both  the  interior  and 
the  exterior.  Now  the  plan  is  a  diagram  showing 
the  nature  of  the  enclosed  space  and  the  arrangement 
of  the  points  of  support.  Different  plans,  therefore, 
may  show  an  entirely  different  constructive  principle. 
There  are  only  four  of  these  fundamental  truths, 
namely,  the  lintel,  the  arch  or  vault,  the  truss,  and 


54  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

cohesion.  A  building  may  be  erected  upon  one 
or  more  of  these  principles,  but  these  four  fundamen- 
tals comprise  the  basis  upon  which  all  edifices  are 
constructed. 

The  simplest  of  the  four,  and  therefore  the  first 
to  be  used,  is  the  lintel,  in  which  a  single  cross-piece 
rests  on  two  vertical  supports.  The  principle  in- 
volved in  it,  is  resistance  to  transverse  strains.  The 
arch  or  vault  was  the  next  in  order,  and  one  with 
which  all  are  equally  familiar.  In  them,  more  than 
one  piece  is  used  to  span  an  opening,  and  all  are  held 
in  place  by  the  pressure  which  they  exert  on  one 
another.  This  lateral  pressure  is  generally  called 
a  thrust.  Also  this  weight  must  be  resisted  by  equal 
heaviness  or  by  an  opposing  thrust  from  other  arches 
or  vaults.  History  tells  us  that  Rome  employed 
the  first  principle  and  built  with  great  massiveness 
while  the  Gothic  builders  of  the  North  achieved  far 
greater  beauty  and  delicacy  through  the  use  of  the 
arch.  The  third  principle  of  the  truss  grew  out  of 
the  need  to  combine  size  and  strength,  and  is  an 
entirely  modern  feature.  It  is  primarily  a  frame- 
work of  wood  or  of  metal  in  which  several  pieces  are 
so  united  that  they  resist  strains  of  tension  or  com- 
pression, and  form  a  compound  beam  much  stronger 


ARCHITECTURE  55 

than  a  single  one.  The  use  of  the  truss  is  common 
in  bridges  or  in  any  wide  span.  The  last  principle 
of  cohesion  has  had  a  varied  and  rapid  development 
in  the  last  decade.  It  has  age  to  recommend  it. 
however,  as  the  Romans  used  it  very  successfully 
in  foundations,  and  in  road  and  bridge  building,  al- 
though in  a  limited  manner.  It  is  simply  a  homo- 
geneous structural  mass  secured  by  the  cohesion  of 
materials  shaped  while  plastic.  All  the  work  in 
concrete  and  cement  with  bars  of  metal  buried  with- 
in in  order  to  resist  transverse  pressure,  with  which 
the  present  day  is  so  familiar,  illustrates  cohesion. 
Upon  these  four  principles  rests  the  entire  science  of 
building. 

The  History  of  Architecture 

The  history  of  architecture  is  replete  with  interest 
as  well  as  with  information.  In  so  far  as  we  know, 
it  originated  in  the  Nile  Valley.  From  Egypt  as 
a  center,  the  science  of  building  spread  to  the  Valley 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  Persia  conquered  this 
territory  and  became  the  teacher  of  Greece.  In  turn 
Greece  taught  Rome,  Rome  taught  Europe,  and 
Europe  taught  the  United  States.  Parallel  with 
this  development  in  the  West  is  another  in  the  Ori- 


56  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

ent.  It  lacks  the  variety,  vigor  and  extent  of  the 
former,  but  it  has  much  to  recommend  it  in  its  way. 
This  is  the  Mohammedan,  the  Brahman  and  the 
Buddhist  architecture,  and  later,  the  building  in 
China  and  Japan.  In  an  historical  sketch  much 
time  could  well  be  given  to  primitive  architecture. 
This  comprises  the  megalithic  structures,  in  which 
blocks  of  stone  are  arranged  in  rows  or  circles ;  also 
the  lake  dwellings,  which  were  primitive  huts  built 
on  wooden  piles  driven  into  the  lakes  of  Switzerland 
and  of  other  countries.  (In  all  probability,  Venice, 
the  present  ocean  city,  had  such  an  origin.)  How- 
ever, both  of  these  forms  of  buildings  extend  far  back 
into  history  and  properly  belong  in  the  domain  of 
Archaeology,  the  science  which  deals  with  prehis- 
toric monuments  and  relics  of  the  earliest  men. 

Beginning  with  Egypt,  therefore,  we  find  the  An- 
cient Empire  (4500-3000  B.  C.)  busy  in  building 
the  pyramids.  There  are  over  one  hundred  of  these 
structures  standing  to-day,  each  one  a  sepulchre  and 
bidding  fair  to  last  indefinitely.  The  size  of  many 
of  them  is  overwhelming,  and  the  majesty  of  all  is 
a  permanent  quantity  defying  the  years.  The  three 
largest  are  at  Gizeh.  TTie  giant  of  all  is  Cheops, 
which  is  764  feet  on  a  side  with  a  height  of  482 


ARCHITECTURE  57 

feet.  Its  foundation  is  a  plateau  of  solid  rock.  The 
pyramid  itself  is  built  of  limestone,  which  was  origi- 
nally covered  with  polished  marble.  It  contains 
three  chambers,  one  above  the  other,  and  a  great 
many  inclined  passages,  and  in  the  upper  chamber 
was  placed  the  sarcophagus.  The  other  pyramids 
are  similar  to  this  only  varying  in  size.  At  Gizeh  also 
is  the  colossal  sphinx,  the  last  great  sculptural  and 
architectural  feat  of  the  Egyptians.  It  is  a  recum- 
bent lion  body  150  feet  long,  with  fore-paws  50 
feet  long.  The  human  face  which  surmounts  it  is 
30  feet  long  and  14  feet  wide.  From  the  top  of 
the  head  to  the  base  the  distance  is  70  feet  The 
Sphinx  is  cut  for  the  most  part  out  of  solid  stone 
with  pieces  added  where  necessary.  TTie  face  at 
one  time  was  colored  red,  and  in  all  probability  the 
whole  head  had  a  limestone  covering.  As  a  monu- 
ment of  the  Ancient  Empire,  the  sphinx  claims  at- 
tention, for  it  was  built  as  a  memorial  tomb.  The 
royal  tombs  built  throughout  this  period  were  more 
than  one  hundred  in  number,  and  are  arranged  in  six 
groups.  Of  course  the  pyramids  and  sphinx  are 
the  greatest  works  of  this  time.  They  do  not  show 
much  architectural  beauty,  but  their  size  and  ma- 
jesty, and  the  skill  displayed  in  their  building  give 
them  first  place  in  the  work  of  this  day. 


58  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

The  Middle  Empire  dates  from  2300  to  1 700  B. 
C.  During  this  period  many  tombs  of  a  diderent 
nature  were  built  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile.  Some 
were  cut  out  of  the  stone  cliff  facing  eastward,  with 
an  elaborate  facade  either  hewn  from  the  stone  or 
built  upon  the  cliff.  At  this  time,  also,  many  tem- 
ples were  builded,  all  of  them  on  the  east  side  of  the 
river.  In  2200  B.  C.  the  great  Temple  of  Karnak 
was  begun.  It  is  by  far  the  most  majestic  ruin  in 
the  world  and  the  most  imposing  temple  ever  build- 
ed, for  it  contains  the  great  Hypostyle  Hall,  meas- 
uring 340  by  1 70  feet  with  1 34  columns  in  sixteen 
rows  and  supporting  a  massive  stone  roof.  These 
columns  are  70  feet  high  and  12  feet  in  diameter. 
It  was  during  this  period  that  the  clustered  columns 
were  used  for  the  first  time,  because  of  their  strength. 
Then  also  the  oldest  of  the  Grotto  temples  were 
probably  builded.  Their  facades  are  adorned  by 
seated  figures  of  the  great  king,  the  builder. 

The  New  Empire,  from  1  700  B.  C.  to  324  B. 
C,  was  a  period  of  great  foreign  conquest.  It  was 
then  that  Rameses  I,  Seti  I,  and  Rameses  II  drove 
out  the  Shepherd  Kings,  and  entered  upon  a  period 
of  architectural  achievement.  As  the  Temple  of 
Karnak  was  more  than  500  years  in  the  building. 


ARCHITECTURE  59 

it  is  probable  that  the  best  part  of  it  was  done  at  the 
beginning  of  this  era.  Near  it,  on  the  site  of  Thebes, 
was  builded  at  this  time  the  Temple  of  Luxor,  with 
two  fore  courts,  which  were  divided  and  crowned 
by  double-aisled  colonnades.  The  temple  itself 
was  850  feet  long  and  was  perhaps  connected 
with  Karnak  by  an  unfinished  hypostyle  hall.  During 
this  period  also  was  constructed  the  Ramesseum,  a 
temple  of  the  first  magnitude,  590  feet  long.  Like 
many  of  the  buildings  of  this  class,  it  was  divided 
into  four  parts.  At  the  rear  was  the  sanctuary, 
before  this  was  the  hypostyle  hall,  and  in  front  of  the 
hall  was  a  second  court  behind  an  entrance  court, 
which  was  flanked  by  huge  pylons  or  gateways. 
In  Nubia  beyond  the  First  Cataract,  was  builded 
during  this  period  the  famous  temple  of  Abou  Sim- 
bel,  a  rock-hewn  temple  whose  facade  has  four 
gigantic  portrait  statues  of  Rameses  II,  which  are 
70  feet  in  height.  This  temple  is  considered  the 
finest  achievement  of  all  Egyptian  architecture.  In 
addition  to  the  Grotto  temples,  many  of  which  were 
builded  during  this  period,  are  the  Peripteral  temples. 
These  are  of  moderate  size  and  consist  of  a  small 
chamber  without  a  roof,  which  is  generally  surround- 
ed by  columns  and  is  usually  placed  on  a  terrace  of 


60  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

vertical  wall.  Philae  and  Edfou  are  the  best  pre- 
served of  the  Peripteral  temples.  The  latter  prob- 
ably belongs  to  the  Ptolemaic  period  from  323  to 
30  B.  C. 

The  temples  for  the  most  part  were  in  Upper 
Egypt  between  Elephantine  and  Beni-Hassan.  Be- 
tween Beni-Hassen  and  Memphis  in  Lower  Egypt^ 
on  the  west  side  of  the  river  and  facing  the  East, 
were  many  tombs.  Temples  and  tombs  were  very 
much  alike.  Some  of  them  were  built  of  stone  and 
of  brick,  and  some  of  them  were  cut  from  the  rock. 
The  walls  of  each  were  decorated  by  outline  sculp- 
ture in  pictorial  forms  incised  and  excised  and  adorn- 
ed with  much  color.  The  plan  of  the  tombs  proper 
is  in  each  case  very  simple,  but  the  network  of  cham- 
bers and  tunnels  was  very  complex,  often  running 
hundreds  of  feet  into  the  rock.  The  columns  as  well 
as  the  walls  were  elaborately  decorated  with  the 
deeds  of  the  rulers.  The  upper  part  of  the  columns 
and  the  roofs  were  always  colored.  The  Egyptian 
put  very  much  more  work  on  his  temples  and  tombs 
than  upon  his  dwelling.  This  is  because  he  was 
more  interested  in  the  next  world  than  in  this  pres- 
ent one.  Life  to  the  Egyptian  was  merely  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  existence  to  come.     All  Egyptian  arch- 


ARCHITECTURE  61 

itecture  is  based  upon  the  principle  of  the  Hntel. 
Neither  the  arch  nor  the  vault  found  a  way  into  their 
use. 

From  Egypt  we  pass  through  Chaldea  and  Assy- 
ria into  Persian  and  Jewish  architecture.  The  plan 
of  their  building  varied  from  the  Egyptian,  but  the 
principle  of  the  lintel  continued  to  prevail.  The 
Temple  of  Jehovah  described  in  I  Kings,  chapters  6 
and  7,  and  II  Chronicles,  chapters  3  and  4,  is  the 
most  elaborate  and  best  example  of  the  temple  arch- 
itecture. Moreover,  the  archaeologists  are  bringing 
to  light  the  castle  architecture  of  that  period.  The 
palaces  at  Babylon,  Susa  and  Ninevah  are  all  thrown 
on  the  screen  in  their  lectures.  This  means  that 
their  plans  have  been  discovered,  and  the  general 
material  of  the  walls  and  their  decorations  are  so  well 
understood  that  the  pencil  can  put  them  together  and 
a  picture  be  drawn. 

Persia  took  the  system  of  interior  columns  from 
Egypt,  but  the  details  of  her  architecture  are  like 
those  of  Assyria.  Also  her  use  of  columns  as  inter- 
mediate supports  she  borrowed  from  central  Asia. 
However,  the  column  in  the  hypostyle  hall  and  in 
porches  was  as  common  in  Persia  as  in  Egypt.  TTie 
Egyptians  developed  the  capital  decoration  of  their 


62  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

column  into  the  following  forms,  namely,  the  lotus 
bud,  the  clustered  lotus  bud,  the  inverted  bell  or 
campaniform,  the  Hathor  headed  and  the  palm  cap- 
ital. In  the  use  of  the  latter,  Persia  was  like  Egypt. 
Moreover,  the  doors  and  windows  had  banded  arch- 
itraves like  those  of  Egypt.  Instead  of  sphinxes  or 
colossal  seated  statues,  like  Assyria,  Persia  placed 
winged  monsters  (lions  and  bulls)  at  her  entrances. 
The  Lycian  architects  used  wall  panels  in  their 
tombs,  a  design  which  Persia  was  pleased  to  utilize. 
These  panels  differed  from  those  in  use  in  Egypt. 
The  Chaldeans,  on  the  other  hand,  used  the  Egyp- 
tian style  of  panel,  although  they  made  it  of  sundried 
brick  enameled  on  one  side.  The  Jewish  architec- 
ture was  formed  from  that  of  every  people  with 
whom  the  Jews  came  in  contact,  their  one  great 
achievement,  as  has  been  stated,  being  the  Temple 
of  Jehovah  at  Jerusalem. 

From  Persia  we  pass  to  Greece  and  to  Greek  arch- 
itecture. The  latter  is  the  synonym  of  perfect  sim- 
plicity, symmetry  and  beauty  in  the  science  of  build- 
ing. The  Greek  was  a  great  architect,  but  he 
builded  only  for  the  Greek.  The  situation  of 
Greece  between  the  seas,  her  surface  broken  by 
mountains,  her  mild  climate  and  her  people,  living  an 


ARCHITECTURE  63 

out-of-door  life,  all  are  characteristically  woven  into 
her  architecture.  First,  her  work  is  unique.  Per- 
haps this  is  because  she  is  separated  from  other  coun- 
tries only  by  the  sea.  Her  architecture  although 
based  upon  the  principle  of  the  lintel  could  not  bor- 
row its  style  and  therefore  was  original.  She  quar- 
ried her  stone  from  the  mountains,  so  she  built  not 
in  wood,  but  in  marble.  Her  climate  is  warm  and 
mild,  and  very  bright.  Thus  her  buildings  inside 
are  cool,  dark  and  often  without  roofs.  Her  people 
had  a  natural  sense  of  fitness  and  proportion,  so  she 
builded  beautifully. 

The  history  of  Greece  begins  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury B.  C.  Before  this  time  facts  are  mixed  with 
myth  and  legend.  This  period  from  1181  to  700 
B.  C.  is  known  as  the  Heroic  Age.  During  this 
period  arose  the  stories  of  the  Expedition  of  the 
Argonauts  and  the  Trojan  War.  The  Greeks  de- 
veloped three  architectural  styles  known  as  historic 
orders,  namely,  the  Doric,  the  Ionic  and  the  Corin- 
thian. During  the  Heroic  Age  the  Doric  order  was 
used,  but  it  was  heavy  in  its  proportions  and  coarse 
in  its  execution. 

The  Doric  pillar  consists  of  a  tapering  shaft  rising 
directly  from  a  platform  upon  which  is  a  capital  of 
great  simplicity  and  beauty.     The  shape  is  fluted 


64  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

with  sixteen  or  twenty  shallow  channels,  which  meet 
in  sharp  edges  called  arrises.  The  capital  is  made 
of  a  circular  cushion  (echinus)  and  a  solid  square^ 
or  cap.  Upon  this  rests  an  unadorned  architrave 
with  a  narrow  fillet  on  its  upper  edge.  The  frieze 
above  is  divided  into  square  panels  called  metopes, 
which  are  separated  by  vertical  triglyphs.  The  cor- 
nice consists  of  a  broadly  projecting  corona  resting 
on  a  bed-mould  of  one  or  two  simple  mouldings. 
Its  under  surface,  called  the  soffit,  is  broken  by 
square,  flat  projections  called  mutules.  The  best 
example  of  Doric  columns  is  found  in  the  Parthenon, 
the  beautiful  ruined  temple  on  the  Acropolis  in 
Athens. 

The  Ionic  order  is  more  slender  than  the  Doric 
and  more  elegant  in  detail.  It  has  essentially  the 
same  parts  as  the  Doric  and  was  used  for  civic  and 
religious  buildings  frequently  in  conjunction  with 
the  Doric.  The  column  is  generally  made  higher 
than  the  Doric,  and  the  shaft  stands  on  a  base  of  two 
tori  (A  torus  is  a  convex  moulding  with  a  semi- 
circular profile).  These  tori  are  separated  by  a 
concave  moulding  called  a  scotia,  on  top  of  which 
is  often  a  flat  base  block  or  plinth.  The  tall  shaft 
had  24  flutings  separated  by  narrow  fillets.     On  top 


ARCHITECTURE  65 

of  the  shaft  was  a  narrow  bead  moulding,  or  astragal 
and  above  that  a  circular  cushion,  an  echinus.  This 
echinus  was  surmounted  by  a  horizontal  band  ending 
on  either  side  in  a  volute  or  scroll.  The  entablature 
was  made  of  two  or  three  flat  bands  crowned  by  fine 
mouldings;  above  this  was  a  frieze  often  sculptured 
in  relief,  and  resting  on  this  was  a  cornice  of  unusual 
beauty.  The  details  of  this  order  were  treated  with 
great  freedom  and  variety.  At  Halicarnassus  and 
Miletus  in  Asia  Minor  fine  examples  of  the  Ionic 
order  are  to  be  found. 

The  Corinthian  pillar  is  not  new.  It  was  a  late 
outgrowth  of  the  Ionic  order.  It  prevailed  very  gen- 
erally after  the  Roman  Conquest.  The  shaft  and 
base  were  similar  to  the  Ionic,  change  being  wholly 
in  the  capital.  This  is  a  high  bell-shaped  core  sur- 
rounded by  one  or  two  rows  of  acanthus  leaves, 
above  which  were  pairs  of  branching  scrolls  meeting 
at  the  corners  in  spiral  volutes.  These  scrolls  sup- 
port the  angles  of  a  moulded  abacus  with  concave 
sides.  The  Tower  of  the  Winds  at  Athens  has 
some  notable  examples  of  the  Corinthian  order. 

The  Greek  temples  were  generally  of  moderate 
size.  They  were  intended  to  enshrine  the  deity  or 
a  simulacrum,  rather  than  to  accommodate  throngs 


66  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

of  worshippers.  They  were  not  intended  even  for 
the  few,  the  privileged  class.  In  form  they  were 
simple,  a  naos  or  chamber  which  enshrined  the  deity. 
Its  walls  without  windows  were  called  the  cella. 
This  chamber  was  entered  through  a  columnar  porch 
the  pronaos.  A  smaller  chamber  was  sometimes 
added  in  the  rear  and  the  whole  structure  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  colonnade,  the  peristyle,  which  was 
the  most  splendid  feature  of  Greek  Architecture.* 
A  single  gabled  roof  covered  the  entire  building. 
Under  the  gable  on  each  side  the  triangular  space 
at  either  end  was  called  the  pediment.  These  pedi- 
ments together  with  the  frieze  about  the  cella  walls 
were  generally  executed  in  elaborate  bas-relief.  The 
Greek  temple  belonged  to  the  people,  not  to  the 
rulers.  No  effort  was  made  to  make  it  large  and 
majestic.  Beauty  of  form,  line,  proportion,  execu- 
tion and  detail  was  the  ideal  to  which  the  Greek 
attained.  There  were  many  varieties  of  these  tem- 
ples and  they  are  named  acording  to  their  differences. 
Moreover,  the  difference  is  almost  always  in  the 
addition  or  loss  of  a  whole  or  of  some  part  of  the 
peristyle. 


*Herein    lies    one    great    difference    between    Egyptian    and 
Greek  building.     In  the  former  the  colonnade  was  enclosed. 


ARCHITECTURE  67 

The  best  period  of  building  in  Greece  as  in  other 
nations,  came  at  a  certain  time;  that  is,  the  same 
standard  of  excellence  was  not  uniformly  main- 
tained. The  Age  of  Pericles  extended  from  453 
to  431  B.  C.  This  period  was  less  than  one  gen- 
eration, but  during  these  two  decades  Athens  gave 
birth  to  more  great  men  than  the  whole  world  has 
produced  in  the  same  length  of  time.  During  this 
age,  also,  many  buildings  and  statues  of  unrivaled 
beauty  were  made.  Then  was  builded  the  Parthe- 
non, the  most  faultless  in  design  and  in  execution  of 
all  the  buildings  erected  by  man.  It  was  the 
masterpiece  of  Greek  architecture,  because  of  its 
perfect  proportion,  its  refinement  of  detail  and 
the  beauty  of  its  sculptural  ornaments.  In  the 
Erechtheum,  also  built  during  this  age,  were  shrines 
to  Attic  heroes  and  deities.  This  temple  is  on  the 
Acropolis  in  Athens,  that  wonderful  hill  which  is 
surmounted  by  the  Parthenon.  Up  here  also  is 
the  Nike  Apteros,  the  temple  of  the  Wingless  Vic- 
tory. The  monumental  gateway  to  the  Acropolis 
is  the  Propylea,  in  which  were  first  combined  the 
Doric  and  Ionic  orders.  Through  the  Propylea 
one  finds  his  way  to  the  Erechtheum,  or  tomb  of  the 
Athenians.     This  age  also  completed  the  Theseum, 


68  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

the  greater  part  of  which  had  been  builded  during 
the  Transition  Period  from  700  to  450  B.  C.  The 
Theseum  is  a  temple  some  distance  from  the  base  of 
the  AcropoHs  in  Athens.  It  is  a  thing  of  beauty, 
hexastyle  and  peripteral  and  adorned  with  Ionic 
orders,  mainly,  with  no  triglyphs  on  the  cella  walls. 
These  buildings  show  in  part  what  the  Age  of  Peri- 
cles meant  to  Athens.  The  city  had  become  a 
powerful  naval  state,  and  this  age  witnessed  an 
unequaled  union  of  intellectual  and  material  inter- 
ests, which  spoke  through  literature,  sculpture  and 
architecture. 

The  Age  of  Pericles  as  we  have  already  stated 
was  preceded  by  the  Transition  Period  (700  to 
450  B.  C).  During  this  time  the  Temple  of  Ath- 
ena at  Egina  was  builded  as  was  also  the  Temple 
of  Zeus  at  Olympia.  Throughout  this  time  the  use 
of  the  Ionic  order  prevailed.  Before  the  Transi- 
tion Age  was  the  Archaic  Period,  (1181-700  B. 
C).  During  these  four  centuries  five  noted  exam- 
ples were  achieved,  all  of  them  glorious  with  the 
Doric  order  of  column.  They  are,  the  Temple  of 
Apollo  at  Corinth,  the  Temple  of  Paestum  in  South- 
ern Italy,  the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Agrigentum,  the 
Temple  of  Zeus  at  Selinus  in  Sicily,  and  the  North- 
ern Temple  on  the  Acropolis  of  Selinus. 


ARCHITECTURE  69 

The  ages  mentioned  thus  far  in  their  order  are 
Archaic,  Transitional  and  the  Pariclean.  After  the 
Age  of  Pericles,  comes  the  Alexandrian  Period 
(438-321  B.  C.)  During  this  time,  the  Temple 
of  Apollo  at  Miletus  was  builded,  in  which  are 
found  beautiful  examples  of  both  the  Ionic  and 
Corinthian  orders;  also  the  Artemisium  at  Ephesus 
and  the  Choragic  monument  of  Lysicrates.  The 
last  was  built  in  memory  of  the  famous  chorus  mas- 
ter's victory  in  choral  competitions.  It  is  famous 
for  its  Corinthian  orders.  Two  periods  follow  the 
Alexandrian  Age.  They  are  the  Decadence,  321 
to  146  B.  C,  in  which,  among  others,  the  Tower 
of  the  Winds  at  Athens  with  its  Corinthian  orders 
was  builded,  and  the  Roman  Period  (146  B.  C. 
to  476  A.  D.)  in  which  the  Agra  Gate  was  accom- 
plished, as  was  also  the  Olympian  Zeus  at  Athens, 
which  was  famous  for  its  Corinthian  orders. 

Greek  architecture  was  not  wholly  confined  to 
the  building  of  temples.  There  are  other  notable 
ruins  scattered  throughout  Greece.  Among  them 
are  the  mammoth  stadia  and  the  hippodromes. 
These  are  oblong  enclosures  surrounded  by  tiers 
of  seats. 


70  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

A  beautiful  new  stadium  of  white  marble  has 
been  rebuilt  in  Athens  by  a  Greek  of  Alexandria, 
and  is  famous  for  the  present  world-spectacle,  the 
Olympian  Games.  — ^Also  there  was  the  palestra  or 
gymnasium.  This  was  a  simple  combination  of 
courts,  chambers,  tanks,  and  seats  for  the  spectators. 
Moreover,  the  Greeks  built  various  tombs,  although 
ruins  of  these  are  not  numerous.  One  of  the  most 
noted  of  them  was  the  Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus. 
The  domestic  architecture  of  the  Greeks  was  insig- 
nificant in  size  and  decoration.  In  this  they  were 
like  the  Egyptians. 

We  have  found  that  the  Egyptian  builded  tem- 
ples and  tombs  because  he  was  interested  in  the  life 
beyond.  The  Greek  reared  temples  and  other  build- 
ings because  he  was  interested  wholly  in  this  world, 
in  to-day. 

In  due  time  Rome  conquered  Greece  and  appro- 
priated for  herself  the  skill  of  the  Greek  in  building. 
This  is  the  wonderful  part  of  Rome,  namely  her 
ability  to  use  the  best  of  the  peoples  whom  she  con- 
quered. In  the  Roman  Empire,  artist  and  artisan 
worked  well  together.  Through  her  ability  to 
organize,  Rome  was  able  to  accomplish  a  far  greater 
amount  of  work  in  a  shorter  time  than  had  any 


ARCHITECTURE  71 

other  of  the  world  powers.  Throughout  her  empire 
she  distributed  aqueducts,  villas,  baths  and  theatres. 
In  these,  artisanship  did  the  constructing  while  art 
did  the  planning  and  decorating.  The  needs  of 
Rome  were  entirely  different  from  those  of  Greece, 
but  she  used  in  her  architecture  all  that  she  could 
utilize  from  the  Greek  method  of  building.  Nor  was 
Greece  her  only  source  of  inspiration  and  know- 
ledge, although  the  influence  of  this  country  is  very 
noticeable  in  Roman  architecture,  yet  from  the  Ori- 
ent and  from  the  islands  of  the  sea,  Rome  took  for 
herself  all  that  she  felt  was  either  useful  or  beautiful. 
The  Greek  orders  were  at  once  superseded  by  the 
Roman.  The  column  and  the  arch  together  gave  rise 
to  a  new  form  as  characteristically  Roman  as  the 
peristyle  and  colonnade  were  Grecian.  Rome 
adopted  the  three  orders,  but  in  a  modified  form. 
For  instance,  the  Roman  Doric  column  was  in  a 
different  proportion.  The  shaft  contracted  toward 
the  capital  and  the  height  of  the  entablature  is  about 
a  quarter  of  the  length  of  the  whole  column.  In  the 
buildings  of  many  stories,  these  orders  were  super- 
imposed. Of  the  three  orders  used  in  Rome,  the  sec- 
ond one,  the  Ionic,  underwent  the  fewest  changes. 


72  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

but  the  Corinthian  was  entirely  changed  and  a  com- 
posite order  was  developed.  While  the  Greeks  fol- 
lowed the  principle  of  the  lintel  as  did  the  Egyp- 
tians, the  Roman  stories  were  characterized  by  the 
arcade.  Thus  the  principle  of  the  arch  or  vault  found 
its  way  into  architecture  in  conjunction  with  the  lin- 
tel. Vaulting  in  brick,  in  concrete,  or  in  masonry 
was  very  commonly  used  for  ceilings  in  both  public 
and  private  edifices. 

The  public  business  of  Rome,  both  judicial  and 
commercial,  was  transacted  for  the  most  part  in 
basilicas,  large  buildings  wide  and  lofty,  with  the 
central  nave  flanked  by  lower  side  aisles,  terminating 
at  one  or  both  ends  with  a  semi-circular  apse  called 
the  tribune,  in  which  were  seats  for  the  magistrates. 
The  most  noted  ruin  of  this  kind  is  the  basilica  of 
Constantine  in  Rome.  Besides  the  basilica  were 
public  swimming  baths,  called  thermae.  There  are 
two  noted  ruins  of  them,  the  baths  of  Agrippa  be- 
hind the  Pantheon,  and  the  thermae  of  Caracalla 
in  Rome.  Also  there  were  theatres,  elliptical  in 
plan,  built  up  with  continuous  encircling  tiers  of 
seats  and  uncovered  by  a  roof  except  in  some  in- 
stances where  the  stage  was  sheltered.  The  Colos- 
seum, built  by  Flavian  and  Vespasian  in  82  A.  D. 


ARCHITECTURE  73 

was  the  largest  of  these  structures.  This  ruin,  one 
of  the  noblest  in  Italy,  is  very  well  preserved.  Two 
stories  of  the  wall  still  stand,  and  on  one  side  a 
portion  of  the  third  and  fourth  stories  is  complete. 
The  tourist  can  see  in  fancy  the  noble  structure,  its 
walls  within  and  without  covered  with  polished 
marble,  alive  with  Roman  crowds  and  gay  with 
the  banners  and  glitter  of  the  Pagan  world,  of  which 
the  "Eternal  City**  was  the  capital. 

Like  the  theatre  were  the  circus  and  stadium. 
In  the  arena  was  the  large  narrow  race-course  sur- 
rounded by  a  semi-circular  file  of  seats.  The  Circus 
Maximus  between  the  Palatine  and  the  Aventine 
Hills  in  Rome  is  the  oldest  of  these  buildings.  How- 
ever, there  was  another  and  a  larger  one  which 
accommodated  over  three  hundred  thousand  spec- 
tators. The  last  of  the  architectural  feats  was  the 
triumphal  arch  which  will  be  discussed  in  connection 
with  the  History  of  Sculpture.  In  the  tombs  of  the 
Romans  we  find  a  great  variety  of  size  and  form. 
The  palaces  and  dwellings  of  the  Romans  show 
their  love  of  ostentation  and  of  luxury.  The  bridges 
and  aqueducts  of  the  Romans  are  characteristic  of 
their  skill  and  of  the  type  of  their  building. 


74  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

fall  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire,  Constantine 
embraced  Christianity,  and  made  it  the  State  Re- 
ligion. As  a  result,  the  simple  working  plan  of  the 
Christian  Church  was  made  over  and  elaborated 
into  an  organization  very  like  the  Roman  Empire. 
The  early  Christians  had  been  satisfied  to  worship 
in  the  catacombs  or  groves  or  in  an  "upper  room;" 
not  so  the  new  State  Church.  Thus,  the  early 
Christian  architecture,  as  it  is  called,  developed.  A 
house  of  worship  was  demanded  and  was  forth- 
coming. It  was  based  on  the  plan  of  the  basilica 
already  mentioned.  These  buildings,  with  a  broad 
and  lofty  nave,  separated  by  rows  of  columns  from 
the  single  or  double  aisles,  proved  admirably  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  the  Christian  Church.  (The  aisles 
were  about  one  half  the  width  of  the  nave,  and  were 
covered  with  wooden  roofs  and  ceilings.)  Above 
the  columns  on  the  sides  of  the  nave  rose  the  lofty 
clearstory  supporting  immense  trusses  which  bore 
the  roof.  These  mechanical  devices  illustrate  the 
third  architectural  principle,  namely,  the  truss.  You 
will  recall  that  Egypt  and  Greece  developed  the 
first  principle  of  the  lintel,  Rome  the  second  princi- 
ple of  the  arch,  and  now  the  early  Christian  archi- 


ARCHITECTURE  75 

tects  used  the  third,  the  principle  of  the  truss.  In 
all  probability  these  early  builders  developed  cohe- 
sion as  well.  In  fact  in  the  rudest  work  of  the 
Roman  world  like  the  aqueducts  and  in  laying  foun- 
dations and  in  building  bridges  doubtless  this  fourth 
principle  was  exercised.  As  to  size,  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  Peters,  is  so  large  that  any  other  basilica-like 
building  can  be  easily  accommodated  within  its  walls. 
St.  Paul  beyond  the  Walls,  and  St.  John  Lateran, 
all  built  on  this  plan,  demonstrate  the  use  of  the 
third  architectural  principle  of  the  truss. 

In  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire,  or  Byzantium, 
this  plan  of  the  basilica  was  slightly  modified.  The 
long,  slim,  Roman  cross,  with  its  short  head  and 
side  arms,  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  early  church, 
gave  place  to  the  Greek  cross  with  stem,  head  and 
arms  of  equal  length.  Also  the  heavily  trussed 
gabled  roof  used  in  Rome  was  replaced  by  the 
domical  roof  of  Constantinople,  with  its  bulbous 
domes  and  minarets.  The  dome,  the  characteristic 
feature  of  Byzantine  architecture,  rested  on  four 
circular  arches.  The  spaces  between  the  arches 
(above  the  sides  where  the  round  of  the  arch  begins) 
were  called  the  pendentives.  These  pendentives  were 
richly  decorated  by  mosaics,  painting  or  bas-relief. 


76  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

In  fact,  the  whole  interior  of  these  cathedrals  was 
rich  in  decoration  and  in  carved  detail.  St.  Mark's 
in  Venice  and  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople  are 
built  on  the  plan  of  the  Greek  cross.  They  have 
the  domical  broken  roof,  which  is  surmounted  by 
many  bulbous  domes,  and  by  an  army  of  minarets. 
These  are  all  excellent  examples  of  Byzantine  archi- 
tecture. 

Just  here  we  should  pause  to  consider  Sassanian 
and  Mohammedan  architecture.  This  would  cover 
Arabian,  Moresque,  Persian,  Indian  and  Turkish 
building.  Each  of  these  classes  boasts  many  struct- 
ures with  more  decorative  than  constructive  features. 
Their  work,  for  the  most  part,  is  massive,  with  ex- 
terior and  interior  rich  in  decorative  detail.  They 
too  have  many  towers  and  pinnacles  which  seem  to 
express  Oriental  love  of  splendor.  The  name  which 
obtains  for  these  buildings  in  the  East  is  not  cathe- 
dral, but  mosque.  It  was  at  this  time,  also,  that 
the  beautiful  palaces  of  the  Moors  at  Granada, 
known  as  the  Alhambra,  and  the  Alcazars  in  Seville 
and  Malaga  were  builded  in  Spain.  In  the  Alham- 
bra is  the  noted  Court  of  the  Lions  so  often  pictured 
with  its  fountain  and  the  Hall  of  Ambassadors  so 
rich  in  decorative  design.     However,  the  greatest 


ARCHITECTURE  11 

expression  of  Mohammedan  art  is  the  magnificent 
Taj  Mahal  at  Agra  in  India.  This  was  built  in 
1 650  by  Shah  Jehan.  While  he  lived,  it  was  used 
as  a  festal  hall,  but  after  his  death,  it  was  his  mau- 
soleum. The  design,  materials  and  execution  of 
this  tomb  are  the  best  known  to  the  Mohammedan 
world.  The  building  is  185  feet  square,  and  is 
made  of  white  marble.  It  stands  in  the  center  of 
a  court  3 1 3  feet  square,  which  is  really  an  elevated 
platform  18  feet  high.  At  the  corners  of  the  court 
are  beautiful  minarets.  They  help  to  bring  out  the 
nobility  and  symmetry  of  the  perfect  white  marble 
dome  which  covers  the  center  of  the  tomb.  In  con- 
nection with  this  should  be  mentioned  the  Pearl 
Mosque  at  Agra,  and  the  Jumma  Musjid  at  Delhi, 
both  achieved  by  the  enterprising  builder  of  the  Taj 
Mahal. 

Another  historical  fact  with  which  we  are  all 
familiar,  is  the  descent  of  the  barbarian  hordes  from 
the  central  and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  upon 
the  Roman  Empire  in  the  last  centuries  of  its  exist- 
ence, and  in  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian 
Church.  Moreover,  we  know  that  while  these  hosts 
came  to  conquer,  they  themselves  were  conquered 
by  the  Christian  Church   and  became   Christians, 


78  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

not,  of  course.  Christians  in  the  full  significance  of 
the  word  to-day,  but  Christian  as  opposed  to  Pagan 
in  the  language  of  a  State  religion.  These  bar- 
barians emerged  later  into  the  French  and  German 
nations.  They  eventually  assimilated  all  that  was 
best  in  the  Fine  Arts,  besides  much  learning  in 
state  craft,  and  in  other  branches  of  knowledge 
which  was  less  helpful.  Now,  whether  they  re- 
mained in  Italy,  as  conquerors,  and  many  of  them 
did,  or  whether  they  returned  to  the  northland, 
they  developed  a  need  for  the  Christian 
Church.  Out  of  this  demand  of  their  na- 
ture grew  the  mediaeval  architecture  in  France, 
Germany,  England,  Spain,  and  Italy,  which 
was  based  upon  the  tradition  of  the  early 
Christian  builders,  and  was  largely  ecclesiastical. 
The  priests  and  the  monks  of  Italy  and  of  Western 
Europe  began  to  rear  churches,  many  of  them  im- 
mense and  made  of  stone,  and  all  of  them  built  upon 
the  general  plan  of  the  Roman  basilica.  These 
edifices  were  fire-proof,  and  vaults  of  stone  were 
used  in  their  construction.  Of  course,  different  con- 
ditions in  different  countries  brought  about  manifold 
differences  in  the  building.  Rome,  although  ruined, 
never  ceased  to  put  her  stamp  upon  the  architec- 
ture in  her  vicinity.     However,  in  the  forests  of 


ARCHITECTURE  79 

Gaul  and  Germany,  sculpture,  mosaic,  and  bas- 
relief  were  not  emphasized  by  the  builders.  As  a 
result.  Western  Europe,  built  fire-proof  stone  edi- 
fices, far  more  massive,  but  much  less  elaborate  than 
those  in  Italy.  The  plan  of  the  basilica  was  still 
in  use,  but  unskilled  labor  disposed  of  its  parts  in  a 
far  simpler  style  than  had  the  builders  in  the  Roman 
world.  This  adaptation  of  the  structure  of  the 
church  to  the  new  conditions  in  the  countries  outside 
of  Italy  brought  about  a  new  style  of  architecture, 
which  is  generally  known  as  the  Romanesque.  As  a 
result  of  this  modification,  Italy  soon  stood  on  mid- 
dle ground.  On  the  east  was  the  architecture  of 
Byzantium,  on  the  west  the  building  of  semi-bar- 
barous Europe,  but  all  of  the  architecture  at  this 
period,  from  the  fifth  to  the  twelfth  centuries,  re- 
gardless of  native  differences,  is  known  in  history  as 
the  period  of  the  Romanesque. 

The  great  cathedrals  in  Lombardy  and  Tuscany, 
the  cathedral,  the  baptistery  and  leaning  tower  at 
Pisa,  the  Duomo  at  Florence,  and  the  baptistery 
near  by,  were  built  during  this  period.  Also,  Dur- 
ham, Carlisle  and  Peterboro  Cathedrals  in  England 
were  constructed  during  this  period  of  the  Roman- 
esque. 


80  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

These  seven  centuries  proved  to  be  only  a  step- 
ping stone  from  early  Christian  architecture  to  that 
style  which  developed  in  Europe  from  the  twelfth 
to  the  sixteenth  centuries,  and  is  wrongly  called 
Gothic  architecture.  The  word  Gothic  means  any- 
thing rude  or  barbarous,  or  whatever  pertains  to 
the  barbarians.  It  happens  that  the  architects  of 
this  period  accomplished  a  grandeur  and  sublimity 
never  before  achieved.  True,  these  builders  were 
descended  from  the  barbarians  who  pillaged  Rome, 
hence  the  name,  but  the  first  meaning  of  the  word, 
rude  or  barbarous,  applied  to  the  splendid  creations 
of  this  period  is  misleading.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, there  was  a  great  intellectual  awakening,  which 
brought  with  it  political  and  social  changes.  Out 
of  the  strife  among  the  emperor,  feudal  barons,  the 
pope  and  the  bishops,  the  supremacy  of  the  papacy 
began  to  be  recognized  side  by  side  with  the  prerog- 
atives of  the  crown.  It  was  then  that  the  splendid 
cathedrals  in  England,  France,  Germany,  the  Neth- 
erlands and  Spain  began  to  be  builded,  a  feat  which 
lasted  several  hundreds  of  years. 

Gothic  architecture  developed  through  structural 
principles.  The  first  was  the  "concentration  of 
strains'*  upon  isolated  points  of  support.     This  was 


ARCHITECTURE  81 

accomplished  by  groined  instead  of  barrel  vaulting. 
(A  groin  is  the  projecting  solid  angle  formed  by  the 
meeting  of  two  vaults.)  The  second  principle  was 
"transmitted  thrusts."  Up  to  this  time,  the  inertia 
of  mass  had  been  the  main  resistance.  Now,  thrusts 
were  resisted  by  counter  thrusts,  and  the  final  result- 
ant pressure  was  transmitted  by  flying  half-arches 
extended  across  the  intervening  portions  of  the  struc- 
ture to  external  buttresses  placed  at  convenient  dis- 
tances. It  was  also  found  that  the  pointed  arch 
allowed  less  warping  of  the  vaulted  surface.  Next 
the  pointed  arch  was  used  where  possible  in  all 
parts  of  the  structure,  especially  in  the  walls  and 
windows.  Of  course,  as  the  massive  walls  became 
unnecessary,  the  windows  grew  in  size  and  in  num- 
ber. The  result  of  this  was  the  suppression  of  the 
lateral  walls.  The  windows  in  turn  emphasized 
the  stained  glass  and  tracery.  As  a  result,  the  beau- 
tiful window  designs  were  forthcoming,  the  circles, 
quatrefoils,  trefoils,  and  rose  windows,  which  after 
six  centuries  excite  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the 
art-loving  world.  Also  the  plan  of  the  church  is 
modified.  The  choir  is  lengthened.  Instead  of 
one  or  at  the  most  two  side-aisles,  their  number  goes 
to  three  and  four.     Moreover,  the  aisles  are  carried 


82  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

around  the  choir  to  form  an  ambulatory.  In  the 
transepts  and  side  aisles  are  many  chapels,  while 
the  nave  proper,  rising  above  the  side  aisles  into  the 
clearstory,  girts  the  latter  with  a  gallery  which  is 
built  as  an  arcaded  triforium.  The  exterior  of  the 
cathedrals  was  radically  transformed  by  the  addi- 
tion of  towers  and  spires  on  the  front  and  on  the 
transepts.  The  flying  buttresses,  terminated  in 
pinnacles,  and  the  triple  receding  portals  were  pro- 
fusely decorated.  All  the  decorative  detail  was 
both  symbolic  and  artistic,  and  increased  in  meaning 
and  in  beauty  through  the  stages  of  this  marvelous 
period,  a  time  when  the  builders  aimed  to.  achieve 
so  beautiful  a  shrine  that  the  Divinity  would  be 
tempted  to  leave  his  home  above  and  be  content  to 
dwell  in  an  earthly  temple. 

Gothic  architecture  was  unusually  splendid  in 
France.  Notre  Dame  in  Paris,  and  the  Cathedrals 
of  Chartres,  Amiens,  Rheims,  and  Rouen,  are  re- 
markable for  beauty  of  design,  richness  of  decora- 
tion and  symbolic  meaning.  Notre  Dame  is  espec- 
ially noted  for  its  stateliness  and  for  its  simplicity, 
while  the  Cathedral  of  Rouen  surpasses  all  others 
in  the  richness  and  design  of  its  decorative  tracery. 


ARCHITECTURE  83 

Sainte  Chapelle,  the  beautiful  royal  chapel  in  Paris, 
and  the  Cathedral  at  Chartres,  are  two  of  the  most 
perfect  examples  of  Gothic  building. 

In  England,  the  cathedrals  are  as  numerous,  but 
they  are  a  little  less  ornate.  The  development  of 
architecture  was  very  much  slower  in  England  than 
in  France.  For  this  reason  it  could  be  more  uniform. 
During  the  Gothic  period  in  which  the  architecture 
was  almost  wholly  eccelesiastical,  a  few  new  cath- 
edrals were  reared  and  almost  all  of  the  old  ones 
were  rebuilt.  The  exterior  of  the  English  cathe- 
drals was  far  less  ornate  than  of  those  on  the  con- 
tinent, but  the  interior  was  especially  rich  in  mould- 
ings and  in  ribbed  vaulting.  The  churches  in  Eng- 
land continued  to  have  a  long  nave  and  choir,  with 
double  transepts,  a  square  east  end,  comparatively 
low  vaulting,  and  narrow  grouped  windows.  Be- 
sides the  features  just  enumerated,  the  English  vault- 
ing had  great  richness  and  variety  in  comparison 
with  the  French.  From  the  ribbed  vaulting,  they 
passed  to  the  fan  vaulting,  which  is  characteristically 
English.  The  best  example  of  this  is  in  the  choir 
of  King's  "College  Chapel  of  Cambridge."  The 
cathedral  towns  in  England  are  York,  Durham,  Ely, 


84  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

Lincoln,  Chester,  Canterbury,  Salisbury,  Carlisle, 
Gloucester,  Lichfield,  and  Peterborough,  besides 
several  others. 

In  Germany,  the  Gothic  architecture  developed 
less  systematically  and  produced  fewer  works  of 
worth.  Moreover,  the  style  was  late  in  being  adopt- 
ed, and  consequently  its  progress  was  slow.  There 
were  some  fine  examples  of  Romanesque  ecclesiasti- 
cal architecture,  but  the  Germans  were  not  quick  to 
adopt  the  vault  and  the  pointed  arch.  When  they 
finally  did  adopt  them,  they  added  only  a  short 
clearstory  with  no  triforium.  This  gave  their  work 
the  low,  massive  character  of  the  preceding  Ro- 
manesque period.  Strange  to  say,  when  the  Ger- 
mans later  became  converted  to  the  Gothic  form, 
their  work  became  very  ostentatious.  Cathedrals 
at  Ulm,  Strasburg,  and  Nuremberg  illustrate  their 
exaggerated  detail  in  both  exterior  and  interior  fin- 
ish. One  characteristic  difference  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  German  churches  was  the  raising  of  the 
side  aisle  vaults  to  the  height  of  the  central  aisle. 
This  changed  entirely  the  interior  effect  of  their 
cathedrals.  In  time,  too,  they  discarded  the  flying 
buttresses  and  clearstory  and  effected  what  is 
known  as  the  hall  church,  a  spacious  interior  with- 


ARCHITECTURE  85 

out  aisles.  The  Cathedral  of  St.  Stephen  at  Vienna 
is  a  fine  example  of  this  type  of  building.  How- 
ever, the  most  magnificent  of  all  the  German  cathe- 
drals, and  one  which  rivals  in  beauty  and  majesty 
the  best  ecclesiastical  architecture  in  any  country, 
is  Cologne  Cathedral  on  the  Rhine.  This  is  in 
plan  and  design  entirely  like  the  French  Gothic 
work.  It  has  double  aisles  in  both  nave  and  choir, 
its  transepts  have  three  aisles,  and  it  has  twin  towers 
on  the  west.  The  ambulatory  is  single,  and  there 
are  no  lateral  chapels.  This  shows  a  slight  digres- 
sion from  the  French  style.  In  Germany  during 
this  period  some  secular  buildings  of  note  were  reared. 
One  is  the  palace  at  Marienburg  in  Prussia,  which 
contains  a  great  hall  for  the  order  of  German 
Knights.  Also  the  Albrechtsburg  at  Meissen  was 
built  at  this  time.  Then,  too,  were  built  many  fine 
guild  halls  and  dwelling  houses  in  various  cities. 
Their  lofty  roofs,  open-work  balconies  and  corner 
turrets  are  characteristically  Gothic  as  well  as  Ger- 
man in  their  quaint  and  effective  design.  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  Italy,  all  have  many  notable  examples 
of  this  period  of  architecture.  The  Moors  were 
overthrown  in  Spain  in  the  thirteenth  century.  After 
this,  building  received  a  great  impetus,  but  was  very 


86  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

similar  to  the  work  done  in  France.  In  fact,  To- 
ledo Cathedral  was  modeled  after  Notre  Dame. 
It  is  among  the  largest  churches  in  Europe,  as  it 
covers  an  area  of  75,000  square  feet.  The  next  in 
size  is  Bourges.  It  has  a  west  front  of  German 
design.  Here  its  twin  open-work  spires  remind  one 
of  Cologne.  Late  Spanish  Gothic  work  overloaded 
the  decorative  side  and  became  entirely  too  ornate. 
At  Leon,  Valencia,  and  Barcelona,  cathedrals  were 
builded  in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  largest  sin- 
gle example  of  ecclesiastical  architecture  in  Spain 
was  built  in  the  fifteenth  century.  This  is  the  Ca- 
thedral at  Seville,  which  occupies  the  site  of  a  Moor- 
ish mosque.  It  covers  the  enormous  space  of  124,- 
000  square  feet,  and  is  415  feet  long. 

In  Italy,  the  monks  introduced  the  Gothic  style 
of  building.  They  too  were  taught  by  France,  for 
the  earliest  examples  of  their  work  show  French  in- 
fluence. The  cities  during  this  period  were  proud 
to  erect  cathedrals  as  tokens  of  their  pride  and 
wealth.  Among  these  are  Sienna,  Florence  and 
Milan,  and  many  others.  They  are  all  of  noble 
proportions,  but  Milan  is  the  largest  of  this  style  in 
Italy,  and  in  Europe,  is  second  only  to  Seville.  In 
beauty,  decorative  detail  and  grandeur  of  design. 


ARCHITECTURE  87 

Milan  is  one  of  the  most  pleasing  cathedrals  on  the 
continent.  The  interior  treatment  of  most  of  the 
Italian  Cathedrals  left  large  unbroken  wall  surfaces 
and  an  unusual  expanse  of  vaults  over  very  wide 
naves.  It  was  intended  to  cover  these  with  paint- 
ings and  color  frescoes.  In  many  instances  this  was 
accomplished,  but  in  others,  the  naked  wall  was  left. 
This,  of  course,  detracts  from  the  general  effect  of 
finish  and  grandeur.  The  plans  of  the  Italian  build- 
ings at  this  time  were  widely  diverse.  Spacious  and 
very  broad,  the  nave  often  seems  out  of  proportion 
to  the  narrow  transept.  The  Campanile  or  bell- 
tower,  is  usually  an  accompaniment  of  the  Italian 
Cathedral,  as  is  also  the  Baptistery.  In  the  churches 
of  the  North,  these  two  functions  are  combined  with- 
in the  cathedral.  Another  difference  in  the  Italian 
Gothic  architecture  was  their  preference  for  the 
square  tower  instead  of  the  spire,  as  in  the  Campanile 
of  St.  Mark's.  Owing  to  the  mild  climate  in  Italy. 
Gothic  architecture  had  a  very  pleasing  development 
in  its  secular  and  domestic  structure.  The  Doge's 
Palace  adjoining  St.  Mark's  in  Venice  is  one  of 
the  best  examples  of  the  secular  use  of  the  Gothic 
in  Italy. 


88  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

History  has  much  to  say  of  the  great  intellectual 
movement  which  stirred  Europe  in  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries.  This  experience,  called  the  re- 
birth of  learning  in  Italy,  and  the  Reformation  in  the 
North,  modified  the  architecture  together  with  the 
other  arts,  and  gave  rise  to  the  building  of  the  Ren- 
aissance. The  spirit  of  this  new  movement  was  the 
protest  of  the  individual  against  the  arbitrary  author- 
ity of  a  few  leaders.  In  other  words,  it  was  the 
cry  of  the  soul  for  freedom,  a  sentiment  which  had 
long  waited  for  utterance,  and  which  had  gathered 
strength  during  the  centuries  of  waiting.  Modern 
civilization  is  the  outcome  of  this  expression. 

You  will  recall  that  the  Humanists  were  the  her- 
alds of  the  Renaissance  in  literature,  and  that  they 
interested  the  Italian  world  in  a  new  study  of  the  old 
classics.  This  fondness  for  the  classics  in  art  was 
not  dead,  but  sleeping,  and  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
Renaissance  only  liberated  an  old  interest.  A  re- 
turn to  classic  Roman  architecture  now  begins  among 
the  builders  of  Italy.  In  Florence,  the  most  artis- 
tic community  in  Italy,  this  new  old  thought  first 
found  expression  in  the  dome  which  was  built  for 
the  Duomo.  After  this,  there  were  many  examples 
of  Roman  classic  models.  These  were  characterized 


ARCHITECTURE  89 

by  a  grace  and  freedom  of  decorative  detail.  The 
movement  thus  started  became  more  and  more  form- 
ally classic,  until  the  old  Roman  orders  were  revived 
with  all  their  original  freedom  and  stateliness.  But 
the  new  can  never  become  the  old  any  more  than 
one  style  can  obtain  forever.  The  classic  Roman 
orders  began  to  be  rebuilt  upon  a  colossal  scale  with 
engaged  columns.  This  style  came  to  be  called  the 
Baroque,  which  means  grotesque  or  exaggerated. 
After  the  building  world  tired  of  the  Baroque,  they 
went  from  bad  to  worse  into  a  Period  of  Decline, 
from  1  700  to  1 800.  At  this  time  sham  and  dis- 
play prevailed  and  architecture  as  a  Fine  Art  for  a 
time  seemed  to  have  lost  her  birth-right. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  the  Renais- 
sance architecture  is  the  shifting  of  the  interest  from 
cathedrals  to  palaces  and  to  public  buildings.  At 
this  time  Brunelleschi  (1435)  builded  the  Pitti  Pal- 
ace in  Florence  and  Benedetto  da  Majano  and 
Cronaca  erected  the  Strozzi  in  the  same  city.  It 
was  then,  also,  that  the  famous  altars,  tabernacles, 
pulpits  and  fountains  were  built  because  the  new 
style  lent  itself  easily  to  works  of  this  character. 
However,  the  pinnacle  of  Renaissance  architecture 
is  St.  Peters.     Several  architects  are  responsible  for 


90  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

this  building.  Bramante,  Raphaers  uncle,  made 
the  original  design,  namely,  a  Greek  cross  with  apsi- 
dal  arms.  Michael  Angelo  simplified  this  and  add- 
ed the  magnificent  dome,  which  is  its  most  striking 
feature.  Moreover,  the  style  of  St.  Peter*s  was 
generally  followed  throughout  Italy.  Palladio  was 
the  great  church  architect  in  Venice  during  this  time, 
and  Sansovino,  another  building  genius,  built  the 
Library  of  St.  Mark's. 

During  this  period,  the  Jesuits  built  many  churches 
in  Italy,  and  they  affected  the  Baroque  style.  One 
of  their  ablest  architects  was  Lorenzo  Bernini.  He 
debased  his  talents  by  producing  work  of  the  exag- 
gerated type.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  famous 
fountain  of  Trevi  (1735)  in  Rome  was  built  by 
Nicola  Salvi. 

France  is  never  behind  in  any  new  movement, 
rather  she  is  one  of  its  leaders.  So  it  was  with  the 
architecture  of  the  Renaissance,  which  prevailed  in 
France,  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  eighteenth  centuries. 
During  the  Valois  period,  from  1 483  to  1 589,  many 
palaces  and  castles  were  built,  all  of  them  simple 
and  effective  in  their  exterior  design.  The  cornices 
at  this  time  projected  slightly,  and  carving  was  very 
freely  used.     Fontainebleau,  one  of  the  finest  pal- 


ARCHITECTURE  91 

aces  of  the  French  kings,  was  reared  during  this 
period,  but  the  best  example  of  the  time  is  the 
Louvre,  now  the  famous  art  museum,  but  originally 
a  fortified  palace.  The  architect  was  Pierre  Lescot, 
and  he  produced  a  dignified  and  classic  castle,  which 
has  been  amplified  until  it  is  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  beautiful  of  the  royal  palaces.  The  Hotel- 
de-Ville,  or  town  hall,  of  Paris  was  another  victory 
for  Renaissance  architecture. 

The  famous  palace  of  the  Tuileries  was  also  un- 
dertaken at  this  time.  It  adjoined  the  Louvre.  The 
gardens  still  remain,  but  the  castle  was  demolished 
during  the  Revolution.  During  the  classic  period, 
from  1589-1715,  the  Luxembourg  palace  was 
achieved  by  the  architect,  Solomon  de  Brosse.  This 
is  now  an  art  gallery,  like  the  Louvre,  only  it  con- 
tains the  works  of  famous  masters,  or  artists  not  long 
dead.  During  this  time  also,  the  immense  royal 
palace  at  Versailles  was  built  by  Levau  and  J.  H. 
Mansart.  Despite  its  size,  it  has  a  plain  exterior, 
which  is  relieved  only  by  the  marvelous  park  which 
surrounds  it.  This  was  the  undertaking  which  so 
drained  the  resources  of  France,  and  taxed  her  treas- 
ury. Another  monument  to  the  period,  is  the  Hotel 
des  Invalides  or  soldiers'  asylum  in  Paris,  also  built 


92  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

by  J.  H.  Mansart.  He  also  planned  the  Place 
Vendome,  for  whose  formality  he  is  most  criticized. 
During  the  period  of  decline  which  followed,  many 
of  the  public  squares  of  Paris  were  made,  among 
them  the  famous  Place  de  la  Concorde,  by  far  the 
most  beautiful  production  of  its  kind  in  Europe. 
On  the  whole,  the  period  of  the  Renaissance,  added 
many  beautiful  constructions  throughout  France,  all 
of  them  marked  by  good  proportions  and  pleasing 
detail. 

In  England,  also,  this  period  of  architecture  had 
ceased  to  be  ecclesiastical,  and  many  of  the  noted 
large  country  houses  were  built  during  this  period. 
Inigo  Jones  planned  the  palace  at  Whitehall,  of 
which  only  the  Banqueting  Hall  has  been  construct- 
ed. Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the  greatest  architect 
after  Jones,  planned  and  achieved  St.  Paul's  Ca- 
thedral at  London,  one  of  the  most  famous  houses 
of  worship  on  the  continent.  Somerset  House  in 
London,  and  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  besides 
many  others  make  this  epoch  memorable  in  the  an- 
nals of  English  architecture.  Belgium,  Germany, 
and  Spain  and  Portugal  all  added  to  their  wealth 
of  buildings  during  the  age  of  the  Renaissance. 


ARCHITECTURE  93 

The  period  of  decline  in  this  style  of  architecture, 
which  we  already  named  the  Baroque  was  super- 
seded, in  the  eighteenth  century,  by  the  Classic  Re- 
vivals in  Europe.  A  Greek  revival,  it  might  more 
properly  be  called,  with  many  suggestions  of  the 
classic  types  of  Rome.  England  took  the  lead  now 
in  the  matter  of  building.  She  constructed  the  Man- 
sion House  (Dance  was  the  architect),  home  of  the 
Lord  mayor  in  London,  the  famous  Bank  of  Eng- 
land (Sir  John  Soane  made  the  plans)  and  the 
splendid  British  Museum  (constructed  by  Robert 
Smirke.)  In  Germany,  in  Berlin,  Schmidt  executed 
the  beautiful  Brandenberg  Gate  and  Schinkel  the 
Old  and  New  Museums.  In  France,  Victor  Louis, 
produced  the  Grand  Theatre  at  Bordeaux,  and  Per- 
cier,  the  Petit  Trianon  at  Versailles.  In  Paris,  the 
arches  of  the  Carrousel  and  of  the  Etoile  were  mod- 
eled after  the  triumphal  arches  of  Constantine  and 
Titus  in  Rome.  The  Madeleine,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  churches  of  the  kind  ever  conceived,  was 
executed  in  Paris  at  this  time,  also  the  Bourse,  the 
Palais  de  Justice  and  the  Library  of  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux  Arts.  In  Munich,  the  Academy  of  Art  and 
Science,  and  the  University  added  to  the  city  wealth 
of  buildings.     Even  in  Russia,  the  new  movement 


94  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

had  a  place,  for  some  buildings  of  the  Kremlin  were 
constructed  at  Moscow,  and  the  Palace  of  the  Grand 
Duke  Michael  and  the  New  Museum  were  added 
in  St.  Petersburg.  However,  the  greatest  move- 
men:  in  Russia  was  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Isaacs 
in  the  Russian  Capital,  by  far  the  most  splendid 
church  of  its  kind  ever  constructed  in  St.  Peters- 
burg. 

From  the  eighteenth  century  and  classic  revivals^ 
we  turn  to  the  nineteenth  century  and  modern  times. 
The  new  conditions  of  the  new  civilization  speak 
most  loudly  through  the  building  of  the  period. 
Churches  and  palaces,  even  public  squares  and  li- 
braries, are  overshadowed  by  the  new  kinds  of 
buildings  constructed.  In  Paris,  we  find  the  -fa- 
mous New  Opera  by  Gamier  and  the  Sorbonne  by 
Sacconi,  serving  as  examples  in  the  modern  builders* 
world.  In  Germany,  the  famous  Dresden  Theatre 
by  Semper  and  the  Berlin  Industrial  Museum  were 
used  as  models.  In  England,  Sir  Charles  Barry 
produced  the  Parliament  Houses  at  Westminster, 
and  Street,  the  New  Law  Courts  in  London,  among 
many  other  famous  and  beautiful  buildings  of  their 
kind,  which  the  needs  of  the  new  spirit  demanded. 


ARCHITECTURE  95 

Certainly  this  brief  discussion  of  architecture 
should  not  close  without  a  sketch  of  building  in  the 
United  States.  In  the  early  day,  wants  were  few 
and  resources  scanty.  All  public  buildings  and 
homes  in  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  New  England, 
were  constructed  of  wood,  with  the  occasional  use  of 
brick,  or  stone.  However,  in  Virginia  and  Mary- 
land the  manor  houses  were  of  brick,  and  the  Dutch 
Colonists  in  New  York  used  stone.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  limitations  of  the  times,  the  refined  tastes  of 
the  people  found  expression  in  the  beautiful  colonial 
architecture  with  which  we  are  all  familiar  and  of 
which  the  White  House  at  Washington  is  so  beau- 
tiful an  example.  The  churches  and  town  halls 
like  the  Old  South  Church  in  Boston  and  Faneuil 
Hall  in  Philadelphra  are  simple  in  design  and  pleas- 
ing in  proportion,  but  the  dwellings  far  better  than 
these  public  buildings  reflect  the  refinement  of  the 
people.  In  the  middle  of  the  century  a  classic  revival 
took  place  in  our  architecture.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  the  Treasury  and  Patent  Office  buildings  were 
constructed  in  Washington  and  the  Old  Custom 
House  in  New  York  City.  In  the  war  period,  St. 
Patrick's  Cathedral*  was  completed  and  the  Pacific 

*The  present  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  was  dedicated  in  1910. 


96  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

Railroad  (1869)  built.  During  the  feverish  com- 
mercial activity  which  followed,  the  country  had  an 
artistic  awakening.  It  was  then  that  the  Fine  Arts 
Museum  and  the  beautiful  Trinity  Church  were 
constructed  at  Boston.  With  them  as  a  stimulus, 
the  United  States  entered  upon  a  new  era  of  build- 
ing. As  a  result,  depots,  warehouses,  department 
stores,  office  buildings  and  factories  have  come  to 
rival  churches,  palaces,  theatres,  universities  in  their 
spaciousness  and  elegance  of  construction.  The  do- 
mestic side  of  the  art  has  also  received  an  impetus. 
Houses  of  wood,  stone,  brick,  concrete,  or  cement, 
many  of  them  as  sumptuous  and  magnificent  as  the 
palaces  of  old,  are  found  in  all  parts  of  our  land. 
(As  was  indicated  in  the  opening  of  the  chapter, 
the  architectural  principle  of  cohesion  is  having  a 
wonderful  use  in  the  building  of  to-day.)  The 
Union  Station  at  Washington,  the  Pennsylvania 
Station  in  New  York  and  the  Northwestern  Depot 
in  Chicago  are  marvels  of  spaciousness,  beauty  and 
utility  combined.  The  inventive  genius  of  the 
American  speaks  very  emphatically  through  his 
building.  The  "sky-scrapers"  are  a  strictly  Amer- 
ican institution  which  involved  great  skill  in  planning 
and  in  building. 


ARCHITECTURE  97 

Last,  but  not  least,  in  this  discussion  of  American 
achievements  is  the  new  Public  Library  building  of 
New  York  City.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  old 
Croton  Reservoir  on  Fifth  Avenue,  and  covers  an 
area  of  1 15,000  square  feet.  The  building,  exclu- 
sive of  the  site,  cost  eight  million  dollars,  and  con- 
tains the  largest  reading  room  in  the  world.  There 
are  to  be  found  3,500,000  volumes.  Like  all  the 
great  modern  constructions,  it  is  as  fire  proof  as  met- 
al and  stone  can  make  it.  Great  refinement  charac- 
terizes this  building,  and  the  result  is  brought  about 
here  as  elsewhere  by  technical  and  painstaking  skill. 
One  unique  and  excellent  feature  of  the  edifice  is 
that  every  layer  of  stone  runs  level  throughout  the 
structure,  in  the  dividing  walls,  pillars,  and  piers, 
both  inside  and  out.  The  architects  are  Carrere 
and  Hastings,  and  they  have  reared  a  monument 
to  themselves  in  which  utility  is  so  well  blended  with 
the  aesthetic  that  the  library  is  an  event  in  the  history 
of  building  in  the  United  States. 

Thus  ends  this  brief  chronicle  of  architecture, 
one  of  the  noblest  and  most  universal  of  the  Fine 
Arts. 


98  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

Twelve  noted  examples  of  Architecture. 


Egypt, 

The  Pyramids,  "Cheops'*  1     ^  q- 

Sphinx                                    j 

Temple  at  Karnak 

Greece 

Parthenon  at  Athens 

Italy 

Colosseum,  Rome 

Hadrian's  Tomb,  Rome 

St.  Peter's  Cathedral,  Rome. 

France 

Notre  Dame                                Paris 

England 

Westminster,  London 

Durham  Cathedral,  Durham 

India 

Taj  Mehal,  Agra 

Spain 

Cathedral  of  jLeville 

Chapter  III 

Painting. 

"  For  don't  you°^mark  ?  we're  made  so  that  we  love 
First  when  we  see  them   painted,  things  we  have 

passed 
Perhaps  a  hundred  times  nor  cared  to  see ; 
And  so  they^lare  better,  painted — better  to  us, 
Which  is  the  same  thing.     Art  was  given  for  that ; 
God  uses  us  to  help  each  other  so, 
[Lending  our  minds  out." 

i — Robert  Browning.    Fra  Lippo  Lippi. 

Painting  is  not  as  universal  as  architecture.  At 
least  it  is  not  so  closely  associated  with  every  man's 
need.  Nor  is  it  practiced  so  generally  by  all  classes 
of  people.  Nevertheless  it  has  great  age  to  recom- 
mend it,  for  we  find  traces  of  color  decoration  in  the 
relics  of  the  cave  dwellers  among  primitive  men. 
Also  as  in  architecture  Egypt  is  the  repository  of 
the  earliest  examples  of  painting,  so  we  begin  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  subject  with  the  statement  that  in 
4000  A.  D.  paintings  were  made  on  walls,  on  mummy 
cases,  and  on  papyrus  rolls.     They  used  six  bright 

99 


1 00  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

colors,  namely,  green,  blue,  red,  yellow,  white,  and 
black,  and  did  little  if  any  mixing  and  blending. 
In  fact,  they  had  a  color  language,  different  colors 
and  degrees  of  colors  representing  different  objects. 
Birds  were  green,  water  was  blue,  men  and  women 
were  red,  (men  were  the  redder)  and  prisoners  were 
yellow.  Drawing  meant  very  little  to  the  Egyptian 
painter  and  he  had  no  knowledge  of  perspective. 
Any  decorative  motive  which  his  work  might  have 
had  was  entirely  lost  in  the  utilitarian  side  of  the  art. 
In  short,  Egyptian  painting  is  both  meager  and  prim- 
itive up  to  the  third  century,  B.  C,  when  Greek  in- 
fluence made  itself  felt  in  the  Nile  country. 

In  Greece  as  in.  Egypt,  the  earliest  paintings  are 
very  crude.  Up  to  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  the  color 
sense  was  apparent  in  a  few  tinted  statues  and  re- 
liefs of  wood  and  clay.  However  in  the  next  two 
hundred  years  there  was  a  great  development  and 
during  this  time  the  masterpieces  of  the  Greek  school 
were  produced.  The  masters  of  this  period  worked 
in  tempera  and  in  encaustic.  In  the  former  they 
mixed  their  paints  with  the  white  of  an  egg,  and  in 
encaustic  they  mixed  them  with  wax.  Moreover 
their  work  shows  that  these  men  had  a  knowledge  of 
light  and  shade,  of  perspective,  and  of  anatomy. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  1 0 1 

They  represented  their  heroes,  Ulysses  and  Theseus, 
their  queen  and  bard,  Cassandra  and  Homer,  besides 
animals,  nature  study,  and  all  things  of  interest  in 
ordinary  Greek  life.  Few  examples  of  this  period 
remain  however  and  our  knowledge  is  based  for  the 
most  part  upon  the  references  of  the  writers.  Some 
of  the  most  important  names  are  Zeuxis  and  Parrhas- 
ius.  (The  story  of  the  contest  has  already  been 
given.)  Apelles  is  the  greatest  name  among  the 
Greeks.  He  was  born  in  350  B.  C.  and  he  brought 
Greek  painting  to  its  highest  proficiency.  Proto- 
genes  was  the  greatest  man  after  Apelles.  They 
were  contemporaneous  and  their  works  show  much 
similarity.  Around  these  four  names  centers  the 
little  glory  which  redounds  to  Greece  from  paint- 
ing. 

Roman  painting  did  not  keep  up  to  the  standards 
which  her  teacher  Greece  had  set.  She  had  many 
inferior  artists,  decorators,  and  portrait  painters.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  Pompeii  and  Her- 
culaneum  were  noted  for  a  certain  decorative  work 
in  red,  blue,  and  soft  yellow.  The  red  had  a  char- 
acter all  its  own  and  took  its  name  from  the  city  in 
which  it  was  most  successfully  used.  Thus  artists 
to-day  are  indebted  to  Roman  painting  for  the  color 


1 02  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

they  call  "Pompeian  red."  The  subjects  employed 
in  this  decorative  work  were  fantastic  animals,  danc- 
ing girls,  genre  sketches,  and  scenes  from  mythology. 
They  are  seen  to  advantage  to-day  in  the  ruins  of 
the  excavated  city.  With  the  Roman  painting  we 
leave  ancient  history  behind  us  and  turn  to  the  be- 
ginnings of  modern  painting. 

History  has  made  us  familiar  with  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  early  Christians.  We  recall  that  for 
centuries  the  Roman  soldiers  made  a  business  of 
searching  out  their  places  of  worship  and  torturing 
the  Christians.  To  escape  this  torture  they  sought 
refuge  in  the  catacombs.  On  the  rough  cellar  walls 
of  these  subterranean  passages  in  Rome,  many  sym- 
bolic figures  are  drawn,  namely,  a  fish,  a  vine,  a  loaf, 
a  ship,  and  the  monogram  of  Christ.  TTiey  served 
to  direct  the  worshiper  along  the  passage  or  were 
perhaps  left  as  mementos  of  successful  meetings. 
After  these  rude  efforts  from  the  fourth  to  the  ninth 
centuries  skill  in  mosaics  developed.  In  Rome,  in 
Constantinople,  and  in  Ravenna  are  some  very  good 
examples  of  this  work  done  by  the  monks  in  the 
monasteries. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  Christian  world  in 
southern  Europe  began  to  awake  and  painting  was 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  103 

one  of  the  first  activities  to  receive  an  impetus.  Of 
course  in  those  days  the  people  could  not  read.  The 
invention  of  printing  had  not  come  to  pass  and  the 
only  written  knowledge  extant  was  in  the  form  of 
manuscripts  which  belonged  wholly  to  the  royal  li- 
braries and  to  the  monasteries.  The  monks  spent 
a  great  part  of  their  time  in  making  copies  of  these 
manuscripts  and  even  then  it  was  only  the  privilege 
of  a  few  trained  minds  to  read  them.  In  the  chap- 
ter on  architecture  we  learned  the  immense  size  of 
the  churches  built  in  this  early  day.  The  only  way 
in  which  the  people  could  gain  religious  teaching  was 
from  the  priests  and  the  size  of  the  churches  prohib- 
ited the  crowds  from  hearing  with  any  distinctness. 
To  meet  this  need  of  the  people,  to  teach  them  the 
stories  of  the  Bible,  painting  was  introduced,  first 
on  wooden  panels,  and  later  in  fresco  on  the  walls. 
Again  we  recall  from  our  study  of  history  that 
Constantine,  worn  out  by  the  jealousies  and  petty 
unpleasantness  of  the  Roman  court,  built  Constanti- 
nople and  made  it  the  kingly  seat.  From  this  time 
on  Constantinople  was  the  center  of  culture,  of  learn- 
ing, and  of  all  the  glamour  which  was  attached  to 
the  old  Roman  empire.  In  Rome  the  Pope  held 
sway  but  he  and  his  followers  were  representatives 


1 04  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

for  the  most  part  of  the  barbarians  from  Northern 
Europe.  It  was  natural  therefore  for  Byzantium 
to  have  a  great  influence  in  the  art  Hfe  of  Italy.  Of 
course  Constantinople  was  typically  oriental  in  all 
her  standards  and  inclinations.  Therefore,  when 
painting  became  the  handmaiden  of  the  church,  their 
religious  subjects  all  had  the  gilt  background,  the 
expressionless  faces,  the  lack  of  feet  and  the  arrange- 
ment in  rows  according  to  the  standards  of  Byzan- 
tium. We  have  said  that  all  Italy  felt  this  influence, 
but  we  know  that  the  Italian  School  must  have  learn- 
ed better  for  in  the  history  of  painting,  theirs  is  the 
most  illustrious  name.  It  was  in  Florence  that  the 
painters  first  found  their  freedom  so  we  turn  with 
interest  to  this  Italian  City  Republic  so  beautifully 
situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Arno.  Florence  was 
the  center  of  the  earliest  and  most  prominent  school. 
This  was  no  accident.  The  skies  in  Florence  arc 
blue,  her  clouds  are  fluffy  and  white,  her  foothills 
are  luxuriant  with  vineyards,  and  in  the  distance 
dream  ever  the  hazy  purple  Apennines.  A  gem  city 
in  a  gem  setting,  a  city  rich  in  money,  rich  in  in- 
fluence, and  rich  in  the  character  of  its  people.  Such 
was  Florence,  the  cradle  of  Italian  painters,  a  city 
justly  famous  for  the  skill  and  versatility  of  its  brush- 
men  and  for  their  achievements  in  the  world  of  art. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  105 

We  have  said  that  the  artists  were  employed  by 
the  church  to  teach  the  story  life  of  Jesus  and  the 
apostles  to  church-going  Italy,  and  that  the  painters 
one  and  all  in  the  beginning  followed  the  standards 
set  for  them  by  Constantinople.  It  happened  in  the 
early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  that  a  Florentine 
nobleman,  Cimabue  by  name,  made  a  study  of  the 
paintings  of  his  day.  As  a  result  despite  the  tra- 
ditions and  limitations  of  Byzantium  he  was  bold 
enough  to  paint  a  Madonna  and  Christ  child,  with 
the  head  of  the  Virgin  turned  a  little  to  one  side,  a 
slight  modification  to  be  sure  from  all  the  standards 
which  prevailed  up  to  that  time,  but  an  act  which 
had  within  it  a  promise  of  greatness  and  one  which 
proved  to  be  the  mother  of  independent  and  per- 
sonal initiative  in  Florentine  art.  TTiis  picture,  the 
oldest  painting  in  Florence,  can  be  seen  to-day  in 
the  Rucellai  Chapel  of  Santa  Maria  Novella  in 
Florence.  Perhaps  just  here  a  word  should  be  said 
about  these  famous  chapels  which  are  found  within 
and  along  the  sides  of  the  great  cathedrals.  These 
chapels  were  decorated  by  the  influential  families 
whose  names  they  bear.  Frequently  the  vault  or 
crypt  below  was  the  family  tomb.  In  the  chapel 
directly  above  the  surviving  members  prayed  for  the 


1 06  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

souls  of  the  departed.  Over  the  altars  in  these 
chapels  are  some  of  the  most  famous  paintings  of 
the  most  famous  masters.  In  this  way  the  cathe- 
drals became  the  repository  of  the  best  art  and  the 
expense  fell  upon  neither  priests  nor  clergy.  Three  of 
the  very  great  families  in  Florence  were  the  Medici,  the 
Strozzi,  and  the  Bardi.  (George  Eliot  has  made 
the  last  named  famous  in  her  "Romola.")  The 
Brancacci  chapel  however  is  the  most  noted  in  Flor- 
ence as  well  as  in  the  whole  world  of  art.  This  is 
in  the  church  of  the  Santa  Maria  del  Carmine.  The 
Brancacci  chapel  recalls  to  mind  the  fact  that  there 
are  four  illustrious  art  rooms  in  the  world  of  paint- 
ing, three  besides  this  Brancacci  Chapel  in  Florence. 
They  are  the  Arena  Chapel  in  Padua,  the  Scuolo 
di  San  Rocco  in  Venice,  and  the  beautiful  Sistine 
Chapel  in  Rome.  The  Arena  Chapel  in  Padua  is 
an  oblong  structure  adjacent  to  the  Eremitani  church 
which  contains  the  work  of  Squarcione  and  of  his 
best  pupil  Mantegna.  The  Scuolo  di  San  Rocco 
in  Venice  is  a  school  adjacent  to  the  church  of  San 
Rocco.  It  also  is  a  separate  building.  The  Sis- 
tine  Chapel  was  etablished  by  Sixtus  IV  to  contain 
the  works  of  the  great  masters.  It  adjoins  the  Vati- 
can and  will  be  mentioned  later  in  connection  with 
the  artist  who  made  it  famous. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  107 

In  Florence  in  the  last  part  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, Cimabue  was  called  upon  to  decorate  the 
Rucellai  Chapel  of  the  Santa  Maria  Novella.  We 
have  said  that  Cimabue  was  a  nobleman.  The 
story  is  that  one  day  while  walking  among  the  foot- 
hills he  found  a  shepherd  boy,  Giotto,  who  had  a 
rare  talent  for  drawing.  Cimabue  took  this  boy 
to  his  home  and  into  his  studio.  As  a  result  Giotto 
became  not  only  one  of  the  great  painters  of  his  time 
but  also  the  greatest  name  in  the  Gothic  School. 
Giotto  loved  to  draw  and  with  his  ability  he  com- 
bined keen  observation.  We  have  said  that  the  bar- 
barians came  down  from  the  north  of  Europe  and 
mingled  their  blood  with  that  of  the  peoples  of  Italy. 
The  Italians  profited  by  this  union  because  the  Teu- 
tons contributed  three  dynamic  elements  to  the  old 
civilization.  These  were  personal  worth,  love  of 
personal  freedom,  and  respect  for  woman.  These 
three  characteristics  gave  a  new  value  to  the  indi- 
vidual. Perhaps  the  rare  courage  and  independence 
of  Giotto  which  now  helped  him  to  throw  off  still 
farther  the  influence  of  the  Orient  has  a  Teutonic 
source.  At  any  rate  we  find  him  throwing  himself 
boldly  into  the  changing  art  life  of  his  time,  calling 
to  his  canvas  scriptural  scenes  never  before  repre- 
sented, and  in  his  pictures  treating  in  an  original  and 


1 08  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

striking  way  everyday  incidents  of  Florentine  life. 
Giotto  spoke  to  the  heart  of  the  people.  Up  to  his 
time  they  had  known  only  the  dull  representations 
of  the  monks,  he  gave  painting  a  new  interest.  He 
abandoned  the  gold  background  and  studied  Nature. 
For  the  first  time  open  air  studies  were  painted,  and 
not  only  the  artists,  but  also  the  people  of  his  time 
loudly  voiced  their  appreciation.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  things  about  Giotto  is  the  fact  that  he 
stood  the  test  of  prosperity.  It  was  a  mighty  change 
for  the  shepherd  boy  to  become  a  protege  of  the 
splendid  Cimabue.  Also  later  in  life  when  he  had 
the  love  and  confidence  of  all  Florence,  Giotto  was 
as  earnest  and  as  unassuming  as  in  the  early  days  of 
his  life  on  the  foothills.  Someone  has  said  that  a 
history  of  a  life  is  the  history  of  its  friendships.  Two 
people  stand  out  prominently  in  the  life  of  Giotto, 
the  greatest  of  the  Gothic  painters  in  Florence.  One 
we  have  already  mentioned,  Cimabue,  his  benefac- 
tor. The  other  was  no  less  a  personage  than  Dante, 
one  of  the  three  Humanist  leaders,  and  a  poet  to 
whom  all  succeeding  centuries  do  homage.  No 
doubt  this  friendship  strengthened  Giotto's  knowl- 
edge of  spiritual  truths,  and  deepened  his  interest  in 
the  meaning  and  in  the  opportunity  of  the  art  of  his 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  109 

day.  Some  of  Giotto's  works  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Bardi  Chapel  of  Santa  Croce.  The  Bardi  will 
be  remembered  as  one  of  the  great  Florentine  fam- 
ilies already  mentioned.  In  the  Peruzzi  Chapel  of 
Santa  Croce  is  another  series  of  frescoes  by  Giotto 
and  still  another  series  is  to  be  found  in  the  cloisters 
of  Santa  Maria  Novella.  These  three,  the  Santa 
Maria  del  Carmine,  the  Santa  Croce,  and  the  Santa 
Maria  Novella  are  three  of  the  noted  old  churches 
in  Florence.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  fam- 
ous Arena  Chapel  in  Padua  as  one  of  the  four  noted 
art  buildings  in  the  world.  This  Chapel  is  made 
famous  by  the  works  of  Giotto  which  he  executed 
early  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

Like  Cimabue,  Giotto  had  many  pupils.  It  was 
the  custom  in  this  early  day,  and  it  prevailed  through- 
out the  Italian  Schools,  for  a  master  painter  to  take 
boys  who  wished  to  become  artists  into  his  studio. 
These  boys  were  taught  to  go  into  the  groves  and 
find  a  tree  of  proper  wood.  The  log  was  taken  to 
the  studio  and  the  wood  made  into  panels,  and  pre- 
pared to  receive  the  painting  of  the  artist.  Later 
the  use  of  wood  was  supplanted  by  walls  of  plaster 
or  stone,  and  still  later  by  canvas,  but  as  long  as 
wood  was  used,  the  students  of  a  great  master  learn- 


1 1 0  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

ed  how  to  select  and  to  prepare  it.  Next  they  were 
taught  how  to  mix  the  colors.  We  have  already 
mentioned  two  techniques  which  were  in  use  at  a 
very  early  day.  They  were  tempera  and  encaustic. 
During  the  fifteenth  century  these  were  supplanted 
by  the  oil  medium  with  which  we  are  now  familiar. 
While  the  pupils  in  the  studios  were  becoming  fa- 
miliar with  the  preparations  of  painting,  they  were 
also  taught  to  draw  the  plan  of  the  picture,  techni- 
cally called  the  design,  from  the  cartoon  made  by 
the  artist  and  from  which  his  work  was  to  be  exe- 
cuted. No  doubt  this  was  done  for  the  most  part 
under  the  supervision  of  the  artist.  After  the  draw- 
ing was  accomplished  the  boys  put  in  the  colors, 
starting  always  with  the  background  and  with  the 
lowest  part  of  the  figures.  In  this  way  they  grad- 
ually worked  up  toward  the  head.  But  the  face 
was  always  put  in  by  the  artist.  Thus  the  students 
in  the  studio  learned  to  paint.  Sometimes  as  in  the 
case  of  Verrochio  and  his  famous  pupil  Leonardo, 
the  boys  outstripped  their  master.  Perhaps  the 
teacher  became  jealous  of  the  boy  he  taught,  as  was 
Annibale  Carracci  of  the  skillful  Domenichino.  But 
this  method  had  more  good  in  it  than  ill  and  pro- 
duced that  galaxy  of  Italian  artists  which  still  holds 
first  place  in  the  history  of  painting. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  1 1 1 

Giotto's  best  pupil  was  Taddeo  Gaddi  whose 
brush  proved  to  be  a  splendid  story-teller  of  the 
events  in  the  life  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  His  works 
call  to  our  mind  the  splendid  service  of  the  Domini- 
can and  Franciscan  friars,  the  gray  and  brown 
monks,  who  during  the  Dark  Ages  conserved  the  lit- 
erature of  the  church,  unified  her  politics  and  pre- 
served her  art.  To  their  wonderful  vision  of  purity 
and  truth  and  to  their  loyalty  to  learning,  modern 
Christianity,  Art,  and  Letters  are  forever  indebted. 
In  this  period  of  the  Gothic  painters  the  people  were 
primarily  interested  in  the  Virgin  mother.  To  the 
monasteries  the  painters  turned  for  detailed  knowl- 
edge of  Mary.  At  this  time  there  were  many  inter- 
esting legends  of  the  Virgin  covering  each  period  of 
her  life,  childhood,  youth,  and  maturity.  It  was 
of  this  interest  in  the  Virgin  that  Taddeo  Gaddi's 
work  is  a  chronicle. 

A  brief  mention  of  this  earliest  Florentine  school 
would  be  incomplete  without  Fra  Angelico,  the 
"Blessed."  For  thirty  years  he  was  a  monk  in 
the  monastery  of  San  Marco.  Now  it  was  the  habit 
of  the  friars  to  conserve  any  special  talent  found  in 
their  midst.  For  this  reason  they  lent  their  sup- 
port to  Angelico.  This  was  not  the  painter's  real 
name,  but  his  religious  character  won  for  him  this 


1 1 2  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

title  first  among  his  brother  monks  and  later  among 
the  painters.  It  is  said  that  he  began  all  his  work 
with  prayer  and  through  his  prayerful  habits  suc- 
ceeded in  giving  a  deep  religious  sentiment  to  his 
pictures.  His  execution  has  a  miniature  quality 
which  harmonizes  with  the  peaceful  expression  and 
the  quiet  atmosphere  of  his  pictures.  In  San  Marco, 
on  the  walls  of  the  cells,  are  some  of  his  best  pic- 
tures. The  "Coronation  of  the  Virgin"  in  the  Uffizi 
Gallery  in  Florence  is  the  picture  which  has  on  its 
smooth  gold  frame  the  twelve  angels  with  musical 
instruments,  which  are  so  well  known  and  so  popu- 
lar. The  Uffizi  Gallery  reminds  us  that  there  are 
three  noted  galleries  in  Florence.  They  are  the 
one  just  mentioned,  the  Pitti,  and  the  Academy. 
The  first  two  are  united  by  a  covered  bridge,  whose 
walls  are  lined  with  portraits  of  the  noted  artists. 

These  four  names,  Cimabue,  Giotto,  Taddeo 
Gaddi,  and  Fra  Angelico  are  representative  in  the 
Gothic  School  of  Florence.  There  were  many 
other  painters.  Each  one  contributed  some  bit  of 
knowledge  and  original  skill  to  the  rapidly  improving 
science  of  painting. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  1 1 3 

We  have  already  hinted  at  the  new  energy  which 
permeated  art,  the  great  medium  of  expression,  dur- 
ing the  fifteenth  century.  In  the  Renaissance, 
painting  appealed  to  men  of  all  phases  of  life.  As 
the  scope  of  thought  broadened  the  sphere  of  paint- 
ing extended.  Beginnings  long  dormant  quickened 
into  life  and  aesthetics  received  a  new  impetus  be- 
cause through  genuine  effort  artists  won  from  nature 
those  secrets  of  beauty  which  the  brush  only  can 
reveal.  In  1400  we  find  a  new  class  of  painters, 
treating  reverently  subjects  which  emotionally  were 
not  theirs.  Notwithstanding  this,  so  great  were  they 
in  their  art  that  even  if  they  did  not  believe  that 
the  Savior's  likeness  was  found  in  St.  Veronica's 
napkin  nor  that  St.  Lucia  carried  two  eyes  on  a 
platter,  no  form  of  a  sneer  appeared  on  their  canvas. 
Thus  with  secular  minds  they  were  enabled  to  paint 
religious  subjects.  Nor  can  they  be  called  insincere 
because  the  people  generally  were  losing  faith  in  the 
historic  accuracy  of  many  of  the  Bible  stories,  even 
while  they  delighted  to  see  them  on  canvas.  The 
Gothic  School  might  well  be  called  a  fraternity  of 
painters  for  a  beautiful  brotherliness  existed  especial- 
ly among  the  early  artists.  This  relation  was  be- 
ginning to  be  modified  at  the  close  of  the  period  for 


1 1 4  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

tradition  tells  us  that  there  was  a  deadly  fued  be- 
tween the  last  two  members  of  the  school.  In  the 
painters  of  the  Early  Renaissance,  there  was  less 
of  this  unity  for  an  ambitious  spirit  characterized 
each  of  the  men.  indeed  history  names  no  father 
to  this  movement  which  heralded  unmistakably  the 
coming  of  a  new  era  in  the  art  language  of  Italy. 
Just  as  uniformity  in  subject  and  general  likeness 
in  treatment  begin  to  disappear  from  the  pictures 
so  the  rise  of  the  individual  becomes  emphatic. 
Teacher  and  pupil  is  the  type  of  intimacy  pe- 
culiar to  the  artists  of  the  Early  Renaissance. 
So  potential  is  this  relation  that  a  steady  pro- 
gressiveness  characterizes  their  works,  carrying 
them  slowly  but  surely  into  a  definite  knowl- 
edge of  the  rules  which  govern  composition,  tech- 
nique, and  that  combination  of  light  and  shade  known 
as  chiaroscuro. 

From  the  standpoint  of  society  this  new  endeavor 
is  not  without  interest.  With  the  decline  of  absolute 
power  in  the  church,  in  inverse  ratio,  rose  the  power 
of  the  individual.  Fortunate  was  Italy  and  the  art 
world  that  as  the  nobles  increased  in  property  and 
in  power  their  interest  in  art  and  their  patronage  grew 
apace.  Moreover  they  did  not  demand  uniformity 
in  subject  nor  in  technique.     With  the  wane  of  the 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  115 

century  the  demand  for  originality  increased  until 
we  find  little  likeness  between  the  pictures  of  the  last 
Gothic  painter  and  those  of  the  last  artist  of  the 
Early  Renaissance. 

The  first  name  of  rank  in  this  group  of  painters  is 
Masaccio,  "slovenly  Tom,"  who  in  his  short  life  of 
less  than  thirty  years  looked  beyond  the  draperies 
of  dress  and  conquered  the  subject  of  anatomy.  He 
painted  bodies  perfect  in  proportion  and  adequate 
in  form,  with  animation  and  variety  of  expression 
in  face  and  in  posture.  Thus  "slovenly  Tom"  was 
not  a  careless  painter  in  his  mastery  of  anatomy.  A 
pioneer  in  nature  study  and  half  a  century  ahead 
of  his  time  Masaccio  made  real  life  the  test  of  his 
painting.  After  him  no  artist  had  a  desire  to  return 
to  the  wooden  bodies  and  expressionless  faces  of 
Cimabue. 

Another  notable  name  in  this  school  of  the  Early 
Reniassance  is  that  of  Fra  Filippo  Lippi,  whom  the 
master  poet  Browning  has  made  known  to  the  world 
as  the  vandal  painter.  It  has  been  said  that  if  all 
of  the  great  poet's  works  were  destroyed  except  any 
one  of  his  three  great  art-poems,  "Fra  Lippo  Lippi". 
"Andrea  del  Sarto",  and  "Abt  Vogler",  this  one 
production  would  crown  him  with  the  laurel  of  first 


1 1 6  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

rank  among  the  poets  of  the  world.  Certainly  this 
painter  monk  has  much  of  interest  for  the  art  world, 
especially  since  he  was  the  teacher  of  the  "Great 
Trio,**  Botticelli,  Ghirlandajo,  and  Filippino  Lippi, 
whose  specially  excellent  work  makes  this  period 
memorable.  What  Giotto  and  Era  Angelico  were 
to  the  Gothic  School  Masaccio  and  Botticelli  were 
to  the  Early  Renaissance.  Bound  as  a  boy  to  a 
goldsmith  Botticelli  gave  little  promise  during  his 
early  twenties  of  making  any  great  contribution  to 
art.  Sensitive,  imaginative,  and  sympathetic,  he  de- 
lighted in  the  creation  of  fanciful  pictures  which 
pleased  the  eye  if  they  did  not  delight  the  soul.  So 
magic  was  his  brush  and  so  dynamic  his  influence 
that  the  man  and  his  pictures  early  caught  the  atten- 
tion of  Savonarola,  the  Zealot.  Inured  to  the  feuds 
of  the  Goldsmiths'  Guild  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the 
young  Botticelli  bowed  down  before  the  monk  re- 
former whose  faith  transcended  martyrdom.  Botti- 
celli loved  his  art  but  he  loved  Savonarola  better. 
Thus  history  tells  us  that  when  the  noble  families  of 
Florence  were  giving  up  their  jewels  and  one  and 
all  were  throwing  their  worldly  treasurers  on  the  fire 
which  Savonarola  kindled,  this  goldsmith  painter 
added  to  the  flames  some  of  his  best  beloved  pictures. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  1 1 7 

Florence  is  the  epitome  of  two  men,  one  was  Sa- 
vonarola, and  the  other  was  the  mighty  poet,  the 
seer  of  the  Humanists,  Alghieri  Dante.  Homer  and 
Shakespeare  are  great,  but  Dante  is  infinitely  greater 
because  not  content  with  interpreting  the  times,  he 
sought  to  teach  righteousness  and  to  read  for  men 
God's  plan  for  the  world.  Dante  died  in  1 32 1  but 
his  spirit  still  brooded  over  Florence,  the  great  art 
center  of  Italy.  To  the  fusion  of  these  two  great 
influences  Dante's  imagination  and  Savonarola's  zeal 
with  the  artist's  own  natural  buoyancy  we  are  in- 
debted for  the  Botticellian  genius  which  speaks 
through  a  type  of  face  and  figure  so  easily  recog- 
nized. With  this  type  Botticelli  achieved  the  char- 
acteristic of  motion  in  art.  This  element  contributed 
for  the  first  time  by  any  painter  makes  his  name  il- 
lustrious for  all  time. 

Contemporaneous  with  Botticelli  and  closely  as- 
sociated with  him  in  Florence,  we  find  the  artist 
garland-maker  Ghirlandajo,  teacher  of  Michael 
Angelo  and  the  second  m.ember  of  the  famous  trio 
already  mentioned.  The  custom  of  the  Florentine 
artists  of  painting  their  own  faces  somewhere  in  their 
pictures  instead  of  signing  their  names,  through  the 
genius  of  Ghirlandajo  became  the  interesting  and 


1 1 8  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

excellent  portraiture  in  the  Early  Renaissance. 
Ghirlandajo's  compositions  are  never  crowded.  This 
habit  of  his  in  time  won  great  praise  for  him,  for 
through  it  he  contributed  the  element  of  simplicity 
to  the  painter's  world. 

The  third  member  of  the  Great  Trio  was  Filip- 
pino  Lippi,  the  gifted  son  of  the  monk  Fra  Filippo 
Lippi.  To  little  Philip  with  rare  good  fortune  were 
bequeathed  all  Filippo's  genius  with  brush  together 
with  an  unusual  skill  in  rendering  strength  and  beauty 
in  sentiment  and  conception.  This  unique  power 
is  termed  the  element  of  grace  and  is  the  basis  of 
Fra  Filippino  Lippi' s  greatness  in  art.  Some  one 
has  called  the  three  marked  characteristics  of  the 
artists  of  the  Great  Trio  namely  Botticelli,  Ghir- 
landajo,  and  Filippino  Lippi  a  Trinity  of  Virtues, 
which  are  motion,  simplicity,  and  grace. 

Passing  over  several  noted  men  in  this  period  we 
note  Luca  Signorelli,  a  "gentleman  painter",  who 
is  called  the  "herald  of  Michael  Angelo"  because 
he  loved  best  to  paint  the  nude  in  fresco  . 

The  last  great  name  of  this  school  which  will  be 
mentioned  in  so  brief  a  chronicle  is  Andrea  Verroc- 
chio's.  This  man  was  a  genius.  Marked  by  that 
rare   versatility  which  characterizes   the   artists  of 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  119 

the  following  century,  he  wrought  in  gold,  in  wood, 
in  bronze,  and  in  marble.  Moreover  to  these  tal- 
ents he  added  an  interest  in  music  and  in  science. 
Sensitive  to  beauty  and  with  strong  mental  qualities, 
Verrocchio  was  blessed  with  an  unusual  amount  of 
plain  common  sense.  When  Leonardo  surpassed 
him  in  painting,  Verrocchio  abandoned  his  palette 
and  turned  his  attention  to  other  realms  of  art.  With 
him  we  close  the  chapter  of  the  Early  Renaissance. 
A  galaxy  of  names,  the  critics  tell  us,  makes  up 
this  group  of  painters.  Out  of  the  struggling  reign 
of  ignorance  known  as  the  "Dark  Ages",  the  Gothic 
painters  had  made  their  way  toward  the  light.  De- 
spite the  political  wars  commerce  had  crystalized 
in  a  few  cities  and  with  the  wave  of  prosperity  had 
come  a  genuine  interest  and  delight  in  the  feeble 
efforts  of  the  early  painters.  It  was  then  that  the 
genius  of  a  Giotto  and  a  Fra  Angelico  lifted  art 
into  partnership  with  the  church.  Here  also  the 
Italian  fondness  for  form  and  color  began  to  assert 
itself.  To  Italy,  especially  to  Florence,  art  was 
not  an  ornament  but  a  necessity.  Printing  was  un- 
known and  the  presenting  of  abstract  ideas  through 
literature  was  impossible.  Thus  art  became  a 
method  of  object  teaching.     In  Florence  this  method 


1 20  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

developed  a  color  thought  and  a  form  language. 
Knowing  what  was  good  and  demanding  it  in  their 
pictures,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  painters  manifested 
a  wholesome  and  steady  growth  up  to  the  unusual 
excellence  of  the  High  Renaissance.  The  Early 
Renaissance  was  therefore  not  a  result,  but  a  devel- 
opment, a  connecting  link  between  the  crudeness  of 
the  earliest  and  the  excellence  of  the  latter  sixteenth 
century  in  art.  As  the  star  of  the  church  descended, 
interest  in  religion  as  a  subject  shifted  naturally  to 
nature,  mythology,  history,  and  portraiture.  The 
painters  of  the  Early  Renaissance  were  in  truth 
pioneers  in  nature  study.  Religion  was  the  main 
object  of  three-fourths  of  the  pictures  painted  during 
the  fifteenth  century,  but  nature  became  the  setting. 
Color,  drawing,  and  technique  took  on  new  life, 
giving  rise  to  a  generation  of  painters  who  were 
giants  in  ready  and  adequate  expression,  the  painters 
of  the  High  Renaissance. 

From  fifteen  hundred  to  sixteen  hundred  is  the 
period  of  the  High  Renaissance  in  which  painting 
achieved  a  greatness  never  since  surpassed.  At  this 
time  the  two  Florentine  giants  Leonardo  da  Vinci 
and  Michael  Angelo,  worked  and  wrought.  Leon- 
ardo was  a  boy  prodigy  who  fulfilled  all  the  expecta- 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  121 

tions  of  his  teachers  and  friends.  Indeed  so  tre- 
mendous were  his  successes  that  the  art  student  is 
likely  to  overlook  the  versatility  of  the  man  who 
was  not  only  a  painter,  but  a  sculptor,  an  architect, 
an  engineer,  a  philosopher  and  a  man  of  science. 
In  the  last  two  capacities  he  heralded  Galileo,  Ba- 
con, and  Descartes.  To  this  painter-thinker  came 
the  conviction  that  the  world  is  not  the  center  of  the 
heavenly  sphere,  a  discovery  which  later  brought 
fame  and  honor  to  Copernicus,  the  greatest  physicist 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  Thus  Leonardo  anticipa- 
ted the  revelations  of  modern  science  and  with  his 
knowledge  of  mathematics  coupled  a  rare  admiration 
for  the  secrets  of  Nature.  Beautiful  as  an  Apollo, 
and  so  strong  that  he  could  bend  an  iron  horse  shoe 
as  if  it  were  lead,  this  universal  genius  combined  a 
passionate  hunger  for  knowledge  with  a  passionate 
love  for  the  beautiful.  Unfortunately,  he  under- 
took far  more  than  he  could  achieve,  and  as  a  result 
was  chronically  disappointed  with  his  work.  More- 
over he  destroyed  almost  all  of  his  pictures.  The 
world  now  recognizes  him  as  a  painter  of  quality,  not 
of  quantity,  as  only  five  of  his  pictures  remain.  The 
"Mona  Lisa",  the  portrait  which  has  held  first  rank 
for  four  centuries,  is  perhaps  the  best  known.  Until  its 


1 22  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

recent  disappearance,  it  has  hung  in  the  Salon  Carre 
of  the  Louvre.  His  greatest  picture  however  is 
"The  Last  Supper"  which  was  painted  on  the  walls 
of  the  refectory  in  the  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie 
in  Milan.  It  is  stated  that  this  is  the  most  widely 
known  picture  in  the  world.  Critics  tell  us  that 
Leonardo  here  painted  his  vision.  Perhaps  this  is 
why  the  picture  has  pleased  men  of  all  nations. 
There  is  very  little  left  of  the  fresco  and  in  a  few 
years  "The  Last  Supper**  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci 
will  be  but  a  memory,  a  tale  that  is  told. 

The  next  greatest  name  of  the  High  Renaissance 
is  Michael  Angelo*s,  the  "Vulcan**  of  painters. 
Master  of  the  terrible,  big  in  body,  big  in  dreams, 
big  in  feeling,  and  big  in  handling,  this  storm-tossed 
giant  in  art  has  a  style  and  a  message  all  his  own. 
Blessed  with  an  inordinate  zeal  for  work,  Michael 
Angelo  preferred  to  express  himself  through  sculp- 
ture. However  painting  is  a  larger  field  than  sculp- 
ture and  the  very  largeness  of  the  man  needed  this 
larger  medium  that  his  giant  mind  might  find  ex- 
pression. His  smallest  ideas,  those  of  narrow  scope 
he  portrayed  in  marble.  He  never  painted  easel 
pictures  but  confined  his  brush  to  wall  spaces  and 
has  given  to  the  world  two  of  the  largest  frescoes 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  123 

ever  painted,  namely  the  "Scenes  from  Genesis" 
on  the  ceiHng,  and  "The  Last  Judgment"  on  the 
end  wall  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  in  the  Vatican. 

Michael  Angelo  was  descended  from  a  noble 
family,  a  fact  of  which  he  was  very  proud.  His 
father,  the  ruler  of  two  small  cities,  was  a  man  with 
an  iron  will  and  he  wished  his  boy  to  be  a  scholar. 
However,  his  strong-willed  son  had  other  plans,  and 
as  often  happens,  he  came  off  victor.  At  fourteen, 
the  **boy  Angelo*'  went  into  the  studio  of  Ghirlan- 
dajo,  intending  to  remain  for  three  years.  Here,  in 
his  early  teens,  he  aroused  not  only  the  wonder,  but 
the  jealousy  of  his  teacher,  when  he  painted  the 
"Temptation  of  St.  Anthony."  Of  course  this  re- 
sulted in  his  soon  leaving  the  studio.  Henceforth 
he  had  no  teacher  but  the  works  of  Masaccio.  The 
story  is,  that  at  this  time  he  found  work  in  the  gar- 
dens of  the  Medici.  One  day,  having  carved  a 
faun's  head,  he  was  surprised  to  see  the  great  art 
patron,  Lorenzo  di  Medici,  standing  at  his  elbow. 
"The  faun  has  too  many  teeth,"  said  Lorenzo.  At 
once,  and  with  rare  knack,  Michael  Angelo  knocked 
out  a  tooth.  The  result  was  such  a  surprising  evi- 
dence of  skill  that  the  young  artist  became  then  and 
there  the  protege  of  the  wealthy  Medici.     Thence- 


1 24  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

forth  he  made  his  home  in  the  famous  palace.  These 
beautiful  surroundings  must  have  meant  much  to  this 
passionate  youth,  whose  high  spirit,  sarcastic  tongue 
and  stormy  temper,  made  his  life  a  constant  warfare 
of  the  feelings.  Stern  and  upright  he  grew  into 
manhood  in  conflict  with  the  world.  With  an  art- 
ist's desire  to  present  the  human  form,  he  made  a 
careful  study  of  the  body  for  twelve  years.  The 
result  of  this  study  was  a  passion  for  the  nude  in  art. 
Michael  Angelo  was  misanthropic  and  bad-tempered 
but  he  was  sincere  and  very  deeply  attached  to  his 
father,  despite  the  lack  of  sympathy  between  them. 
This  painter's  sense  of  duty,  his  great  reverence,  and 
his  strong  integrity,  all  grew  with  the  years.  Pope 
Julius  II  called  Michael  Angelo  to  Rome  to  carve 
a  mausoleum.  Such  work  he  gladly  undertook. 
Presently,  however.  Pope  Julius  changed  his  mind 
and  ordered  him  to  paint  a  mammoth  fresco  on  the 
ceiling  of  the  Sistine  Chapel.  Michael  Angelo  pro- 
tested, declaring  that  he  could  do  much  better  work 
with  the  chisel.  But  Pope  Julius  was  obdurate,  and 
the  artist  entered  upon  his  task.  The  result  was  the 
nine  narratives  from  Genesis,  beginning  with  the 
"Drunkenness  of  Noah"  and  extending  to  the  "Di- 
viding the  Light  from  the  Darkness."     With  a  few 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  125 

strong  strokes,  the  brush  of  the  artist  portrays  a 
grandeur  and  subhmity  never  equalled  in  art.  This 
work  is  done  in  tempera.  The  tone  is  subdued,  but 
the  sensuous  grace,  the  boldness  of  action,  and  the 
magnificence  of  form  have  never  been  surpassed.  The 
ideas  he  expresses  are  peculiar  to  himself.  All  laws 
of  natural  proportion  are  made  over  to  suit  his 
unique  purpose.  His  situations  are  impossible,  but 
through  them,  notwithstanding,  he  accomplishes  a 
force  and  a  power  which  the  art  world  still  con- 
templates with  reverence.  The  ceiling  has  sloping 
sides,  which  are  adorned  with  mouldings  arched 
above  the  windows  on  either  side.  Between  these 
arches  are  prophets  and  sibyls,  seven  of  the  former 
and  five  of  the  latter,  flanking  the  sides  and  the  ends 
of  the  room.  These  heroic  figures  are  among  the 
most  wonderful  productions  in  art.  More  than  hu- 
man in  size,  in  attitudes  of  meditation,  speculation, 
abstraction,  or  inquiry,  they  convey  the  longing  of 
the  ages  for  Jesus. 

The  next  great  work  of  this  "Vulcan"  of  painters 
was  "The  Last  Judgment,"  executed  on  the  end 
wall  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  several  years  later.  In 
this  work  he  violated  all  former  traditions  of  art. 
He  depicts  the  rage  of  passion  through  contorted 


1 26  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

poses  of  the  human  body.  In  this  picture  he  at- 
tained to  the  highest  excellence.  Comment  is  in- 
adequate to  give  a  conception  of  the  marvelous  depth 
and  richness  of  this  work.  The  mighty  measure  of 
his  mind  is  beyond  the  comprehension  of  ordinary 
people.  Man  and  painter  are  one.  Someone  has 
said  that  the  secret  of  a  successful  life  is  in  friend- 
ship. In  his  early  years,  Michael  Angelo  seemed  to 
have  no  human  side.  Successive  popes  treated  him 
with  deference,  and  tradition  tells  us  that  Pope  Cle- 
ment was  afraid  of  him.  It  was  not  until  he  was 
sixty  that  a  strong  friendship  came  to  Michael  An- 
gelo. This  was  his  love  for  Vittoria  Colonna,  the 
beautiful  widow  of  the  Marquis  Pescara.  The 
artist's  feeling  for  her  has  been  likened  to  Dante's 
devotion  to  Beatrice.  It  was  she  who  helped  him 
to  rise  above  his  jealousy  of  Raphael,  the  great  rival 
of  Michael  Angelo  in  Italy.  This  friendship  did 
not  ripen  into  marriage,  and  at  the  end  of  eighty- 
nine  years,  the  tempest-tossed  giant  in  art,  still  alone, 
met  the  greatest  day  of  his  life,  the  day  of  death. 
Michael  Angelo  has  many  imitators  of  his  manner, 
but  the  mighty  soul  of  this  painter  is  supreme  in  its 
aloneness.  In  all  probability  his  remarkable  force 
precipitated  the  decadence  in  art.     Someone  has 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  127 

said  that  Leonardo  was  a  greater  genius  and  Raph- 
ael a  happier  man,  but  that  Michael  Angelo  was 
nobler  than  either.  His  work  once  achieved  became 
to  the  world  a  temple  of  wonder,  to  which  the  artist, 
through  a  long  life  of  suffering  and  of  hard  work, 
continued  to  add  in  fresco  and  in  marble,  those 
stupendous  creations  which  thus  far  have  defied  time 
and  have  remained  a  citadel  of  creative  genius. 

The  third  great  name  of  the  High  Renaissance 
and  a  lesser  light  in  every  way  was  Andrea  del  Sar- 
to,  whom  his  contemporaries  were  pleased  to  call 
"the  faultless  painter."  Andrea  sprang  from  the 
bourgeoisie,  and  his  models  are  the  simple  and  sin- 
cere type  from  this  class  of  society.  As  his  name 
implies,  Andrea  was  the  son  of  a  tailor.  Like  many 
other  painters  of  this  period  he  was  apprenticed  to  a 
goldsmith,  but  he  was  very  backward  in  learning 
to  use  the  chisel.  An  artist  outside  taught  the  boy 
to  draw,  and  he  soon  left  the  shop  of  the  goldsmith 
for  the  studio  of  a  painter.  Fame  came  to  him  first 
as  a  draughtsman,  second  as  a  colorist,  and  third  as 
a  master  of  chiaroscuro.  His  contemporaries 
claimed  that  he  knew  how  to  charge  his  pictures  with 
a  shock  of  pleasure.  Perhaps  this  came  firstly  from 
the  fact  that  he  never  over-painted,  and  secondly. 


1 28  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

because  he  preferred  to  produce  a  certain  silvery  ef- 
fect instead  of  richness  of  color,  at  the  same  time 
conserving  the  tone  strength  on  his  canvas.  This 
unique  power  with  color  made  him  a  harmonist,  and 
his  perfect  tints  are  more  varied  than  even  those  of 
the  greatest  masters.  Nevertheless,  Andrea  del  Sar- 
to  fell  short  of  perfection.  Critics  say  that  he  lack- 
ed spiritual  discernment,  and  his  biographer  tells  us 
that  the  reason  for  this  lack  was  in  himself.  He 
was  completely  in  the  power  of  his  wife,  a  selfish  and 
unscrupulous  woman.  For  her  sake  he  misused 
money  given  him  to  buy  pictures  for  the  French 
king,  and  was  false  to  all  those  higher  relations  that 
make  society  a  safe  place  in  which  to  live.  The 
face  of  his  wife  became  a  "del  Sarto"  type,  and 
looks  out  from  all  of  his  paintings.  Two  of  his 
best  known  pictures  are  the  "Madonna  of  the  Harp- 
ies" in  the  Uffizi  Gallery  at  Florence,  and  "St.  John 
the  Baptist"  in  the  Pitti  Gallery  in  the  same  city. 
During  the  latter  years  of  his  painting,  his  work 
became  mechanical  and  artificial.  His  pictures 
ceased  to  be  imposing  in  boldness,  in  size  or  in  gran- 
deur, and  they  seemed  to  be  without  sentiment  and 
conviction.  In  the  end,  his  pictures  came  to  lack 
all   lofty  qualities.     When  he  was   forty-five,  he 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  129 

was  stricken  with  the  plague  in  Florence.  His  wife 
was  the  first  to  desert  him,  and  he  died  miserable  and 
alone.  His  contemporaries  felt  that  Andrea  del 
Sarto  lacked  vision.  Also  that  while  he  had  great 
possibilities,  he  was  held  to  earth  by  his  own  remiss- 
ness, so  that  he  never  claimed  that  heritage  of  in- 
spiration which  is  a  part  of  the  legacy  of  the  painter 
born. 

The  fourth  great  painter  in  point  of  time  comes 
after  Leonardo,  but  in  popularity  and  in  fame  he 
follows  Andrea.  This  artist  is  the  gentle  monk, 
Fra  Bartolommeo,  who  had  a  sympathy  and  under- 
standing far  in  advance  of  his  time.  Like  Botticelli, 
he  was  an  enthusiastic  follower  of  Savonarola.  When 
the  reformer  met  his  terrible  death  at  the  stake, 
Bartolommeo  entered  the  monastery,  having  resolved 
to  forego  forever  the  pleasure  of  painting.  But  the 
abbot  at  the  head  of  the  monastery  was  unwilling  to 
have  this  artist  so  dishonor  his  gift.  He  sent  him 
back  to  his  brush,  a  task  soon  made  easy  by  his 
friendship  with  Raphael  Sanzio,  the  third  great 
world  painter.  It  is  said  that  this  friendship  helped 
them  both,  for  the  monk  taught  Raphael  to  draw, 
and  he,  in  turn,  instructed  Bartolommeo  in  the  use 
of  color.     One  of  Fra  Bartolommeo's  characteris- 


130  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

tics  was  to  paint  little  boy  angels,  generally  playing 
on  musical  instruments  at  the  feet  of  the  Madonna. 
This  reminds  us  of  the  boy  cherubs  painted  by  Raph- 
ael at  the  base  of  the  Sistine  Madonna. 

The  last  of  the  five  great  names  of  this  period  is 
Albertinelli,  a  friend  and  business  partner  of  the 
painter  monk.  Albertinelli  was  essentially  practi- 
cal. The  zeal  of  Savonarola  did  not  disturb  him. 
He  left  all  of  that  burden  to  Fra  Bartolommeo. 
When  his  friend  entered  a  monastery,  Albertinelli 
left  Florence  in  disgust  and  became  a  vagabond 
innkeeper.  Later,  when  the  monk  renewed  his  in- 
terest in  painting,  Albertinelli  returned  and  became 
Bartolommeo's  business  partner.  They  often  worked 
together  on  the  same  picture,  so  it  is  hard  to  tell 
their  works  apart.  However  Albertinelli  has  left 
several  examples  of  his  own  skill.  His  masterpiece 
is  the  "Visitation**  in  the  Uffizi  gallery  in  Florence. 

There  are  other  names  in  the  High  Renaissance 
of  Florence,  but  they  belong  properly  in  the  School 
of  the  Mannerists,  which  we  shall  consider  later. 

Besides  the  Florentine  School  of  Art,  there  were 
eight  minor  groups.  They  are,  in  the  order  of  time, 
the  Siennese,  the  Roman  or  Umbrian,  the  Paduan, 
the  Venetian,  the  Ferrarese,  the  Lombard,  the  Bo- 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  1 3 1 

lognese  and  the  Naturalistic  Schools.  Four  of  these 
are  most  important.  They  are,  according  to  their 
rank,  the  Venetian,  the  Roman  or  Umbrian,  the  Pa- 
duan  and  the  Bolognese  Schools. 

Mediocrity  is  the  prevailing  note  of  Sienna*s  art- 
ists. II  Sodoma,  a  friend  of  Raphael,  is  the  most 
famous  of  their  men.  The  Roman  or  Umbrian 
school  is  characterized  by  devoutness.  Three  men 
greet  us  from  this  group,  Perugino,  noted  chiefly 
as  the  instructor  of  Raphael,  another  great  teacher 
whose  best  lives  through  the  works  of  his  pupil ; 
Pinturicchio,  the  deaf  dwarf,  perhaps  the  most  lov- 
ing and  lovable  in  all  the  galaxy  of  artists;  and  last 
and  greatest,  the  third  great  world  painter,  Raphael 
Sanzio,  called  the  "Apostle  of  Harmony.*' 

Raphael  Sanzio,  born  in  1483,  was  the  son  of  a 
painter.  His  mother  died  in  his  early  years,  but 
he  had  a  step-mother  who  cared  for  him  with  the 
tenderness  and  skill  of  an  own  parent.  Shortly  his 
father  died.  Then  a  much  loved  uncle  took  his 
place  in  the  life  of  the  gifted  painter.  The  lad 
was  of  such  a  sunny  disposition,  so  beau- 
tiful and  so  able  with  his  pencil,  that  uncle 
and  step-mother  combined  to  develop  his  tal- 
ent.    Raphael   made   wonderful   progress.      In  no 


1 32  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

time  almost  he  took  and  discharged  orders  for  pic- 
tures on  his  own  account.  In  these  days  his  work 
had  original  touches,  but  he  was  too  modest  to 
achieve  any  striking  originality.  When  he  finally 
went  to  Florence  and  entered  the  famous  art  circles 
of  the  "City  of  Flowers'*,  he  learned  a  great  deal 
from  the  works  of  Masaccio,  Leonardo,  and  Michael 
Angelo.  He  grew  in  power  here  so  rapidly  that 
when  he  was  only  twenty-five.  Pope  Julius  II,  a 
great  art  patron,  called  him  to  Rome  and  commis- 
sioned him  to  decorate  a  suite  of  rooms,  which  at 
once  became  famous  as  "Raphael's  stanzas."  When 
he  completed  these,  he  had  but  one  rival  in  Italy, 
namely,  Michael  Angelo.  Commissions  for  pictures 
now  poured  in.  He  met  them  by  employing  his 
pupils,  of  whom  he  now  had  great  numbers.  Raph- 
ael made  the  plan,  his  assistants  did  all  of  the  work 
except  the  finishing  touches,  which  Raphael  always 
laboriously  added.  In  this  way  he  met  the  enor- 
mous demands  upon  him.  He  lived  luxuriously  in 
his  Roman  villa,  and  enjoyed  his  home  and  friends 
and  prosperity.  His  pupils  adored  him  and  attend- 
ed him  as  if  he  were  a  prince.  Raphael  never  mar- 
ried. He  had  a  fiancee  of  noble  birth,  who  was 
in  such  ill  health  that  the  wedding  was  indefinitely 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  133 

postponed.  Notwithstanding  Raphael  was  a  source 
of  dehght  to  his  friends  and  so  kind  to  his  enemies 
that  they  could  not  find  grounds  for  a  quarrel. 
Michael  Angelo  disdained  him,  but  Raphael,  obliv- 
ious to  his  slights,  with  serene  composure,  painted 
on  side  by  side  with  the  "Titan  in  art*'  in  the  Vati- 
can. Raphael  was  profoundly  industrious.  In  a 
Very  short  time,  he  achieved  a  knowledge  of  anatomy 
and  technique  which  most  artists  spent  years  in  at- 
taining. He  was  a  genius  in  composition,  and  could 
draw  study  after  study  quickly  and  accurately  with- 
out finding  the  end  of  his  originality.  Moreover  he 
was  a  prodigy  in  assimilating.  He  could  absorb  the 
best  unconsciously.  This  was  a  mighty  factor  in 
his  quick  development.  It  has  been  said  of  him 
that  "he  could  sense  space  and  convey  it  to  his  can- 
vas.'* He  knew  how  to  group.  Another  commen- 
tator says:  "Other  painters  balanced  their  figures, 
Raphael's  situations  balance  themselves.  In  the  art 
of  composition  he  has  no  peer."  Physically  and 
spiritually  his  pictures  are  ideal.  He  always  paint- 
ed the  right  person  in  the  right  place,  at  the  right 
time.  Critics  say  that  his  best  work  in  composition 
was  executed  in  the  stanzas  of  the  Vatican.  His 
"School  of  Athens"  in  the  Stanza  della  Signatura, 


1 34  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

is  one  of  the  best  known  of  these  frescoes.  In  this 
picture,  Raphael  knew  how  to  paint  the  Greek  as  a 
Greek.  In  the  "Disputa,"  on  the  opposite  wall* 
he  becomes  a  theologian,  but  whether  his  motive  is 
philosophy,  poetry,  or  religion,  it  has  in  it  a  rare 
vitality  and  charm.  It  has  been  said  that  Raphael 
loved  to  paint  the  Madonna  more  than  did  any 
other  artist.  In  his  early  years  his  model  was  al- 
ways fair  with  blue  eyes.  The  Gran'  Duca  Madon- 
na in  the  Pitti  Palace  at  Florence  is  the  most  suc- 
cessful picture  of  this  type.  In  later  years  his  Ma- 
donnas all  had  dark  hair  and  eyes.  One  of  the 
most  popular  and  widely  known  of  Raphael's  pic- 
tures is  the  "Madonna  of  the  Chair"  also  in  the  Pitti. 
This  belongs  to  the  later  class  and  is  especially  suc- 
cessful in  its  color. 

Without  doubt  his  two  greatest  easel  pictures  are 
the  "Sistine  Madonna"  in  Dresden,  and  the  "Trans- 
figuration", left  unfinished  and  borne  in  triumph  at 
his  funeral.  This  picture  now  hangs  in  the  Vatican. 
On  the  first  canvas  is  the  best  expression  of  his  last 
and  mature  conception  of  the  Virgin.  She  stands 
erect  upon  a  throne  of  clouds  with  the  Christ  child 
in  her  arms.  Her  eyes  shine  with  the  light  of 
heaven,  and  the  delight  of  a  mother  is  in  her  embrace. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  1 35 

The  baby  in  her  arms  is  unusually  beautiful  physical- 
ly, and  at  the  same  time  has  a  mystical  and  spiritual 
beauty.  It  is  without  doubt  the  most  perfect  con- 
ception of  the  Madonna  and  child  ever  conceived 
and  painted  on  canvas.  It  takes  its  name  from  the 
monastery  of  San  Sisto,  for  which  it  was  painted, 
but  is  often  erroneously  related  to  the  Sistine  Chapel 
of  the  Vatican,  which  as  we  have  already  seen,  was 
built  by  Sixtus  IV  in  order  to  accommodate  the  great 
works  of  the  great  artists.  (Perhaps  if  the  original 
spelling,  namely  Sixtine,  were  retained,  this  confusion 
would  not  be  so  general.) 

While  painting  the  "Transfiguration,"  Raphael 
took  a  severe  cold  and  died  after  a  short  illness. 
All  Italy  mourned  for  him,  and  all  Rome  came  to 
his  funeral.  Julio  Romano,  his  best  pupil,  and  the 
only  artist  of  Roman  birth,  essayed  to  complete  his 
work.  Such  is  the  "Transfiguration,"  as  we  see  it 
to-day. 

The  Paduan  School  is  generally  placed  after  the 
Umbrian.  The  prevailing  note  of  its  work  is  sculp- 
turesque. Squarcione  is  the  great  teacher  of  this 
group  of  painters,  and  his  influence  was  felt  through- 
out Italy.  The  great  pictures  of  Squarcione  and  of 
Mantegna,  his  best  pupil,  and  the  most  noted  name 


1 36  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

in  the  school,  are  found  in  the  Arena  Chapel  at 
Padua,  one  of  the  four  great  art  rooms  in  the  world. 

The  Venetian  School  is  our  next  consideration. 
If  Florence  reflected  the  intellect  in  Italian  paint- 
ing, Venice  reflected  the  feelings.  The  Florentine 
love  for  form  and  drawing  was  paralleled  in  Venice 
by  a  love  for  mass  and  color.  Florentine  love  of 
truth,  in  Venice,  became  love  of  sensation.  The 
quiet  ideals  of  the  peasants  and  tradesmen  and  nobles 
in  Florence  traveled  steadily  on  and  up  into  the 
realm  of  inspiration.  The  spirit  of  adventure  in 
the  sailor-merchants  and  bankers  of  Venice  entered 
only  into  the  realm  of  the  imagination.  Merry, 
brave,  and  happy-go-lucky,  the  Venetian  painters 
painted  their  way  quickly  into  versatility  and  excel- 
lence. 

Venetian  art  seemed  to  know  no  Gothic  period. 
In  the  Early  Renaissance  we  find  their  painters 
breaking  away  from  the  dominion  of  Constantinople, 
just  as  the  Florentine  School  had  done  in  the  days 
of  the  Gothic  Brotherhood  ( 1 250-1 400) .  At  this 
time  and  long  after,  Venice  was  still  tolerating  the 
gold  backgrounds  and  stiff  classic  composition  of 
Byzantium. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  137 

The  first  great  name  among  many  others  in  the 
Early  Renaissance  is  the  BelHni.  There  were  three 
of  them,  a  father  and  two  sons.  The  last-named, 
Giovanni  Bellini,  history  tells  us,  is  the  greatest  name 
of  the  family.  Another  painter  of  note  in  these 
early  times  was  Antonello  da  Messina,  a  Sicilian, 
to  whom  is  given  the  credit  of  introducing  the  oil 
technique  into  Venice.  These  two  names  are  per- 
haps the  greatest  in  the  earliest  period  of  Venetian 
painting,  and  we  pass  on  to  the  High  Renaissance 
(1500-1600)  during  which  time  Venice  produced 
five  of  the  big  men  in  the  world  of  art. 

The  first  name  is  Giorgione,  "big  George".  He 
lived  to  be  only  thirty-four  years  of  age,  but  during 
his  short  life,  he  produced  much  good  work,  and  is 
said  to  have  rivaled  Titian  in  his  power  with  color. 

Titian  (Tiziano  Vecellio,  1477-1576)  is  the  sec- 
ond of  the  five,  not  only  the  greatest  of  the  Venetian 
School,  but  the  last  of  the  four  greatest  world  paint- 
ers, who  were,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michael  Angelo, 
Raphael,  and  Titian.  Titian  early  won  first  place 
in  Venice,  and  he  lived  a  long  life  of  triumphal  suc- 
cess. He  was  the  fashion  of  the  day,  and  nearly 
all  the  crowned  heads  of  his  time  sat  before  him  for 
a  portrait.     During  his  ninety  years,  classicism,  por- 


1 38  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

traiture,  and  pure  fancy  engaged  his  efforts.  When 
he  became  an  old  man  he  dehghted  in  helping  the 
young  painters,  of  whom  Paulo  Veronese  was  one. 
The  Emperor,  Charles  V  favored  Titian  with  many 
orders,  so  that  some  of  his  best  work  is  in  Spain. 
Titian  had  a  very  happy  family  life.  One  of  his 
daughters  whom  he  loved  devotedly  appears  as  his 
model  in  many  pictures.  After  her  death,  he  grew 
old  rapidly,  but  he  kept  his  vigor  and  his  love  for 
hard  work  to  the  very  end.  His  "Assumption  of 
the  Virgin"  in  the  Academy  at  Venice  is  considered 
his  greatest  picture.  Another,  the  "Presentation 
of  the  Virgin,"  also  in  the  Academy,  is  very  well 
known.  Perhaps  his  "Flora"  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery 
in  Florence  ranks  second  to  the  "Assumption"  in 
skill.  These  are  but  three  out  of  many,  the  results 
of  a  life-time  of  hard  work.  During  the  four  cen- 
turies since  his  death,  no  artist  has  been  able  to 
take  from  him  the  honor  of  being  the  world's  great- 
est colorist. 

Palma  Vecchio,  Palma  the  elder,  is  the  third 
famous  name.  He  was  a  great  man  in  a  very  limited 
sphere,  namely,  he  could  paint  a  woman,  large, 
strong,  and  beautiful  in  face  and  figure,  with  much 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  1 39 

amplitude  of  drapery,  so  skillfully  that  it  became  a 
type.  The  Santa  Barbara  in  the  Santa  Maria  For- 
mosa in  Venice  is  his  masterpiece. 

Tintoretto,  "little  dyer,"  is  the  next  great  name. 
He  is  the  painter  with  the  largest  sweep  known  to 
art.  His  contemporaries  called  him  *T1  Furioso," 
because  he  was  such  a  giant  in  achievement.  He 
never  paused  with  a  drawing,  but  completed  his  pic- 
ture before  he  stopped.  He  painted  "Paradise," 
the  largest  picture  in  the  world.  It  is  done  in  oil, 
and  covers  2200  square  feet.  In  it  are  some  five 
hundred  figures,  many  of  them  portraits  of  the  best 
people  of  his  day.  This  colossal  fresco  is  in  the 
Ducal  Palace  at  Venice.  However  it  is  not  his 
masterpiece.  His  "Miracle  of  St.  Mark's"  in  the 
Academy  at  Venice  has  this  honor. 

The  last  of  the  five  notables  among  the  painters 
of  the  High  Renaissance  in  Venice  is  Paul  Veronese, 
one  of  the  beneficiaries  of  Titian.  He  was  a  painter 
of  pomp  and  of  splendor.  Crowds  of  people  look 
out  from  his  canvas,  many  of  them  portraits  of  his 
friends  or  of  his  family.  He  had  a  habit  too  of 
painting  domestic  animals,  pets,  into  his  work,  and 
even  into  his  religious  subjects.      Paul  Veronese  is 


1 40  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

a  fitting  ending  to  the  Venetian  School,  one  of  the 
most  dramatic  and  the  most  interesting  chapters  in 
Itahan  Painting. 

The  next  group  of  men  centers  around  Ferrara. 
They  were  influenced  by  Raphael  and  by  some  of 
the  Venetian  painters,  but,  notwithstanding  this  they 
individualized  all  their  pictures.  Dosso  Dossi,  the 
portraitist,  and  Garofalo,  the  Ferrarese  Raphael, 
who  is  noted  for  the  skillful  use  of  a  certain  beam 
of  yellow  light  in  all  his  pictures,  are  the  two  first 
great  names  in  the  period  of  the  High  Renaissance. 
The  last  artist,  however  is  the  one  who  makes  the 
Ferrarese  School  most  notable.  His  name  is  An- 
tonio Correggio  (1494-1334).  Correggio  had 
great  natural  talents,  for  when  only  twenty  he  paint- 
ed the  famous  Madonna  of  St.  Francis,  now  in  Dres- 
den. Critics  say  that  Raphael,  to  whom  he  is  so 
often  compared,  had  made  no  such  record  as  this. 
This  Ferrarese  painter  knew  how  to  blend  color, 
light,  and  shade  into  perfect  harmony.  He  loved 
to  portray  beautiful  women  and  children  and  knew 
how  to  give  them  a  rare  charm.  The  light  in  his 
pictures  is  always  remarkable  and  he  is  known  first 
as  a  master  of  chiaroscuro.  His  greatest  picture 
is  "The  Holy  Night'*  in  Dresden.     This  is  con- 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  141 

sidered  one  of  the  great  world  pictures.  His  "Mar- 
riage of  St.  Catherine"  in  the  Louvre,  Paris,  and  the 
"Adoration'*  in  Dresden  are  aFso  widely  known  and 
favored. 

The  Lombard  School  is  the  next  classification. 
They  are,  however,  made  up  of  painters  from  so 
many  different  localities  that  the  term  has  a  very 
vague  designation.  Bernardo  Luini  is  their  great- 
est brush  man.  He  painted  sweet  and  strong  sub- 
jects in  a  manner  very  much  like  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 
His  "Madonna  of  the  Rose-Trellis"  in  the  Brera 
Gallery  at  Milan  is  justly  famous. 

The  Bolognese  School  centered  around  Bologna 
and  collected  the  excellencies  of  all  the  other  groups 
of  painters.  Francia  and  Timoteo  Viti,  in  the  Early 
and  High  Renaissance,  respectively,  are  their  two 
best  painters.  In  1600  they  lost  themselves  in  the 
School  of  Eclectics  which  produced  several  noted 
artists. 

You  will  recall  that  we  have  mentioned  only  five 
painters  of  the  High  Renaissance  in  Florence.  TTie 
other  artists  of  the  time  are  known  as  the  Mannerists. 
These  men,  of  whom  Daniel  da  Volterra  was  the 
first,  made  a  study  of  the  qualities  of  the  greatest  art- 
ists, and  so  exaggerated  their  excellencies  that  they 


1 42  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

were  termed  "mannered."  The  Eclectics  centered 
in  Bologna,  and  led  by  the  Carracci,  of  whom  Anni- 
bale  was  the  greatest,  also  studied  the  great  masters, 
but  they  sought  mainly  to  correct  the  faults  of  the 
Mannerists.  Their  noted  men  were  Domenichino, 
made  famous  by  his  great  picture  the  "Communion 
of  St.  Jerome**  now  in  the  Vatican,  and  Guido  Reni, 
the  artist  who  claimed  to  be  able  to  paint  the  up- 
turned face  in  one  hundred  different  poses.  He  was 
a  man  of  power,  who  debased  his  gift  until  he  lost 
it.  Biography  tells  us  that  he  gambled  away  all 
his  money  and  influence  until  he  was  little  more  than 
an  outcast  among  the  painters.  His  two  greatest 
pictures  are  the  beautiful  "Aurora,**  a  ceiling  fresco 
in  the  Rospigliosi  Palace  in  Rome,  and  the  "Bea- 
trice Cenci**  in  the  Barberini  Palace  of  the  "Eternal 
City.** 

Guercino  and  Carlo  Dolci  are  the  last  two  noted 
names  in  this  school.  The  former  is  a  realist,  and 
the  latter  a  sentimentalist.  Carlo  Dolci*s  St.  Cece- 
lia in  the  Dresden  Gallery  is  one  of  the  most  unique 
treatments  of  the  "patron  saint  of  Music**  found  in 
all  painting. 

The  last  group  of  men  to  paint  in  Italy  were  the 
Naturalists.  Their  leader  Caravaggio,  was  a  wild 
passionate  man  whom  the  other  schools  felt  was  de- 


ITALIAN  PAINTING  143 

termined  to  ruin  painting.  He  and  his  followers 
settled  in  Naples,  and  decided  upon  the  expul- 
sion of  all  of  the  other  painters  in  the  city.  Domen- 
ichino  is  said  to  have  been  poisoned  by  them.  These 
men  made  nature  their  basis  and  painted  her  as  they 
saw  her.  Unfortunately,  their  vision  was  perverted, 
and  abnormality  became  the  keynote  of  their  work. 
The  greatest  of  the  school  was  Ribera,  the  Spaniard, 
but  Salvator  Rosa  was  the  most  human  of  the  three. 
He  was  a  poor  lad  who  supported  his  mother  and 
sisters  with  his  brush  work. 

With  Salvator  Rosa  and  the  other  Naturalists 
the  art  muse  closes  the  book  of  fame,  the  Chronicle 
of  five  centuries  of  the  art  world  in  Italy. 


Chapter  IV 

Painting. 

"  I  know  of  no  more  encouraging  fact  than  the 
unquestionable  ability  of  man  to  elevate  his  life  by 
a  conscious  endeavor.  It  is  something  to  be  able 
to  paint  a  particular  picture  or  to  carve  a  statue, 
and  so  to  make  a  few  objects  beautiful ;  but  it  is 
far  more  glorious  to  carve  and  paint  the  very  atmos- 
phere and  medium  through  which  we  look,  which 
morsJly  w^e  can  do." 

—Henry  D.  Thoreau:    Where  I  Lived, 

The  French  School  holds  second  place  in  the  an- 
nals of  painting,  so  we  turn  now  to  France,  the  land 
of  Napoleon,  and  the  cradle,  if  not  the  birthplace, 
of  chivalry.  This  country,  beautiful  in  its  plains, 
rivers,  and  highlands,  is  the  home  of  a  people  both 
hardy  and  thrifty.  Indifferent  alike  to  the  hatred 
of  the  Germans  on  the  east,  and  to  the  arrogance 
of  the  English  on  the  west,  this  empire-republic 
tills  her  fields,  prunes  her  vineyards  and  fills  the  banks 
of  her  cities  with  the  hard-earned  francs  of  her 
frugal  farmers  and  merchants.     Many  busy  cities 

145 


1 46  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

break  the  monotony  of  the  peasant  landscape.  They 
are,  for  the  most  part,  beautiful  in  design,  pleasing 
in  architecture,  and  solid  in  resources.  Many  of 
them  boast  a  cathedral,  massive  and  splendid,  whose 
bell-tower  spires  suggest  an  uplook  toward  God. 

To  the  north  is  Paris,  a  "beauty-land* *  of  parks, 
palaces,  shops  and  theatres.  Paris  gathers  to  her 
bosom  people  of  all  nations  and  of  all  fortunes.  She 
favors  the  artist  with  her  "salons'*,  the  savant  with 
her  Sorbonne  and  the  bon-vivant  with  her  cafes,  her 
Bois,  and  her  Champs-Elysees.  A  conglomerate 
city  is  Paris,  French  in  name  and  French  in  structure, 
but  world-wide  in  her  interest,  and  notorious  for  her 
vice.  Paris  is  the  great  money  center,  the  great 
fashion  center,  the  rendezvous  of  the  scholar,  and  the 
fairy-land  of  art.  But  Paris  is  not  France.  Two 
races  mingle  their  blood  in  the  heart  of  the  French- 
man, the  fair-skinned,  light-haired  Norman  and  the 
brown-eyed  Latin  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  poetic  fancy  and  passion  of  the  Le- 
vant, which  in  years  past  have  spoken  through  the 
civilizations  of  Greece  and  Rome,  here  among  the 
hills  and  valleys  of  France,  met  the  Celtic  civiliza- 
tion of  Scandinavia.  It  was  then  that  the  beauty 
of  the  Greek  and  the  justice  of  the  Roman,  married 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  147 

the  personal  worth  and  the  love  of  freedom  of  the 
Tueton,  and  produced  after  many  centuries  the  con- 
fident and  resourceful  modern  Frenchman.  Bril- 
liant in  mind  and  ardent  in  spirit,  he  borrows  the  in- 
ventions upon  which  to  build  his  ventures,  and  busy, 
changeable  and  warm-hearted,  he  provides  for  the 
poor,  the  unfortunate,  and  the  insane.*  But  France 
and  the  Frenchmen  live  apart  from  the  great  me- 
tropolis for  Paris  is  not  the  heart  of  France.  It  is  a 
city,  grown  we  hardly  know  how,  a  cosmopolitan 
city  of  all  kinds  of  people,  from  all  kinds  of  places 
and  bent  on  all  kinds  of  pursuits.  Also,  it  is  a 
city  in  which  is  gathered  rare  treasures  from  the 
world  of  art. 

France  begins  properly  with  the  Capetian  Kings 
in  the  tenth  century.  The  houses  of  Valois  and  of 
Orleans  followed.  Years  came  and  went,  bring- 
ing with  them  the  Bourbons  and  their  experiment  of 
absolute  monarchy.  Louis  XIV  is  the  epitome  of 
their  demonstration,  and  after  him,  liberty,  equality, 
and  fraternity,  the  cry  of  the  individual,  which  was 
lifted  in  protest  was  silenced  in  the  maelstrom  of  the 
French  Revolution.  Then  Napoleon,  the  man  of 
destiny  and  the  maker  of  kings,  played  his  part  upon 

♦France  was  among  the  first  to  build  hospitals,  insane-asylums 
and  savings  banks. 


1 48  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

the  stage  of  history.  After  him  rose  modern  France, 
the  cradle  of  Hberty,  but  an  aristrocratic  democracy 
with  it  all,  and  here  is  the  art  about  which  we  are 
to  study,  an  art  rich  in  the  variety  of  subject,  rich 
in  technical  excellence,  and  rich  in  its  ability  to 
teach. 

Beginning  with  the  thirteenth  century,  the  artists* 
endeavor,  guided  by  Italian  influences  in  the  Riviera 
made  its  way  through  tapestries,  furniture  and  glass, 
and  finally  spoke  in  painting  through  such  men  as 
Rene  of  Anjou,  the  painter-king  of  Naples,  and 
through  the  three  Johns,  Jean  Fouquet,  Jean  Pereal 
and  Jean  Bourdichon.  These  four  men  are  the 
earliest  of  the  court-painters.  Thus  painting  really 
began  in  France  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century  with  portraiture.  However  the  portrait 
painters  were  soon  joined  by  the  historical  artists, 
men  who  painted  their  heroes  in  the  midst  of  their 
deeds.  Jean  Cousin,  1501-1589,  is  the  earliest 
memorable  name  of  this  class.  It  is  hard  for  the 
historian  to  hold  to  the  truth,  so  naturally  the  fanci- 
ful painters  made  the  next  class.  These  men  left 
history  for  mythology,  and  in  turn  as  history  and 
mythology  need  nature  for  a  setting,  the  landscape 
artists   follow.     Thus,   at  the  close  of  the  seven- 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  149 

teenth  century,  the  French  School  had  developed 
four  distinct  lines  of  work,  namely,  portraiture,  his- 
torical painting,  mythological  painting,  and  land- 
scape work. 

Perhaps  it  should  be  said  right  here  that,  while 
the  art  motive  of  the  Italian  School  was  primarily 
religious,  among  the  French  from  first  to  last  the 
motive  has  been  purely  decorative.  Byzantium  was 
her  school-mistress  from  the  ninth  to  the  thirteenth 
centuries,  and  altogether  with  her  oriental  symbolism, 
gave  France  a  love  of  color  for  color's  sake.  In 
the  fifteenth  century  the  four  court-painters  mention- 
ed above  rose  superior  to  the  teachings  of  the  Orient, 
Jind  turned  to  nature  for  their  lessons.  This  of 
course  created  a  new  movement  which  represented 
a  new  ideal  in  art.  This  revival  can  be  easily  seen 
in  the  earliest  portraitists,  the  court-painters  of  Fran- 
cis I  in  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  then  that  Jean 
Cousin,  the  Michael  Angelo  of  France,  became  fa- 
mous as  the  first  great  historic  painter.  He  was  fol- 
lowed in  the  seventeenth  century  by  Nicholas  Pous- 
fin,  1593-1665,  a  painter  not  only  of  history  but 
also  of  mythology  and  of  landscape.  This  painter 
had  a  great  influence  upon  the  men  of  his  school  es- 
pecially through  his  work  in  mythology,  the  depart- 


1 50  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

ment  in  which  he  was  most  famous.  This  being  so 
we  look  for  the  greatest  name  in  landscape  and  find 
the  painter  was  Claude  Lorraine,  1600-1682.  Like 
his  contemporary,  Nicholas  Poussin,  he  spent  a  great 
part  of  his  life  in  Rome.  It  was  here  that  he  made 
a  study  of  light.  Through  the  mists  on  the  broad 
Campagna  surrounding  the  world's  capital,  this  rus- 
tic genius  who  never  despised  hard  work,  studied 
the  sunrise  and  the  sunset  until  he  found  new  truths 
not  yet  acquired.  John  Ruskin,  England's  great 
art  critic,  calls  his  discovery  the  "pleasant  air  be- 
tween earth  and  sky,"  and  certainly  this  element  is 
constant  in  Claude  Larraine's  pictures.  Neverthe- 
less, although  this  master  was  a  close  student  of  na- 
ture, yet  the  artificiality  of  his  day  left  its  mark  upon 
all  of  his  many,  many  pictures.  His  followers  cop- 
ied his  weakness  as  well  as  his  strength,  but  even 
then  his  effects  in  light  and  atmosphere  are  lasting 
and  dynamic  in  the  world  of  painting. 

Eustache  la  Seur,  the  French  Raphael,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Claude  Lorraine.  He  is  perhaps  the 
only  distinctively  religious  painter  among  the  French 
School  of  this  period.  Another  noted  man  of  this 
day  was  Charles  Le  Brun,  the  first  master  of  the 
French  Academy  under  the  Grand  Louis  XIV.  His 
works  are  in  much  evidence  at  Versailles,  but  they 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  151 

all  stamp  him  as  a  second  rate  painter  because  royal- 
ty not  art  held  first  place  in  his  attention.  However 
after  Claude  Lorraine  the  first  successful  painter  of 
the  sun,  the  next  great  name  is  Antoine  Watteau's, 
1 684-1  72 1 .  He  is  the  Frenchiest  of  all  the  French 
artists,  for  his  passion  was  to  paint  his  humble  friends 
among  the  bourgeoisie  and  the  peasants  in  and  near 
Paris  as  lords  and  ladies  in  small  idyllic  scenes.  In 
this  way  he  caught  the  fancy  of  the  French  world. 
His  pictures  were  so  small  and  so  popular  that  cop- 
ies of  them  on  cups  and  saucers  became  the  fashion. 
At  this  time  also  genre  painting,  namely  scenes  from 
domestic  life,  developed  among  the  French.  Jean 
Baptiste  Chardin  was  a  favorite  artist  of  this  type. 
So  also  was  Jean  Baptiste  Greuze,  called  the  Carlo 
Dolci  of  France,  whose  habit  was  to  paint  a  pensive 
young  girl  in  various  attitudes  of  despondency  or 
regret.  This  subject  was  unique  in  art,  and  he  has 
become  justly  famous  through  the  "Broken  Pitcher'* 
and  pictures  of  this  kind.  Like  Watteau,  Greuze 
became  the  fashion  in  Paris,  but  his  work  did  not 
improve  with  his  years. 

The  French  Revolution  revolutionized  art  along 
v^ith  all  other  activities.  The  leader  in  the  new 
movement,  Jacques  Louis  David  1748-1825,  is  the 
**great  high-priest  of  classicism.'*     This  man  like 


1 52  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

many  others  of  his  school  went  early  to  Italy.  Here 
he  was  slow  in  maturing  but  in  time  he  made  the 
discovery  that  form  meant  far  more  than  color.  Bas- 
ing his  work  upon  this,  the  pictures  he  produced  were 
so  unusual  that  he  soon  won  notice.  In  these  early 
days  he  laments  what  he  called  his  "coarse  Gallic 
taste.**  Soon  with  his  reputation  established  he  re- 
turned to  France  and  became  the  leading  painter  of 
the  day.  It  is  said  that  the  fashions  of  France  even 
followed  his  bidding  and  that  ruffled  robes  gave  way 
to  the  loose-fitting,  simple  garb  of  the  Greeks.  Also 
powdered  hair  was  discarded  and  simplicity  became 
the  order  of  the  day.  History  tells  us  that  David 
was  a  friend  of  Robespierre,  a  member  of  the  Jacob- 
in Club  and  of  the  National  Assembly.  We  know 
too  that  he  cast  his  vote  to  behead  the  king  and  later 
won  immediate  fame  by  painting  Marat  in  the  bath 
meeting  death  at  the  hands  of  Charlotte  Corday. 
At  this  time  David  seemed  to  hold  French  art  with 
its  face  toward  the  past  in  an  iron  grip.  But  Na- 
poleon's star  arose  and  a  friendship  with  the  great 
leader  altered  David  and  with  him  French  art.  At 
once  he  lost  his  loyalty  to  the  new  movement.  Af- 
fairs of  state  rather  than  affairs  of  art  absorbed  him 
and  we  find  him  giving  up  his  leadership,  leaving 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  153 

Paris  and  settling  down  quietly  at  Brussels.  Here 
he  again  took  up  his  brush  and  devoted  himself  to 
his  art.  His  critics  tell  us  that  during  his  last  years 
more  and  more  he  exemplified  the  statuesque.  In 
the  history  of  painting  David  was  an  organizer  with 
a  wonderful  conception  of  values.  He  made  the 
artists  of  France  measure  themselves  by  past  stand- 
ards and  his  pupil,  Jean  Dominique  Auguste  Ingres, 
followed  in  his  footsteps.  However  Ingres  at  the 
same  time  saw  the  other  side  of  Italian  art.  The 
coldness  of  the  statuesque  did  not  appeal  to  him  nor 
did  the  warmth  of  color.  He  veiled  his  school  in 
gray  and  in  so  doing  had  a  vision  of  actual  truth  in 
art.  After  him,  no  artist  painted  from  memory  or 
without  consulting  nature.  In  short  Ingres  reformed 
the  reformer  and  found  middle  ground  between 
Classicism  and  Romanticism. 

We  cannot  leave  the  eighteenth  century  without 
a  word  about  Madame  Vigee-Le  Brun,  an  interest- 
ing and  skillful  portrait  painter.  This  class  of  paint- 
ing in  the  French  School  is  identified  by  three  names. 
Nattier  is  the  first  and  Gerard  is  the  last  but  Madame 
Vigee-Le  Brun  holds  the  middle  ground.  Daughter 
of  a  painter,  she  early  showed  rare  talent  with  the 
brush,  and  by  the  time  she  became  a  woman  the 


1 54  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

character  and  the  quality  of  her  work  were  well  es- 
tablished. She  was  the  first  woman  to  be  admitted 
to  the  French  Academy  and  her  work  stands  the  test 
of  time.  Her  best  known  pictures  are  of  herself 
and  her  little  daughter.  Her  biographer  tells  us 
that  this  charming  little  girl  became  a  most  ungrate- 
ful and  unworthy  woman,  but  that  the  mother's 
affection  survived  all  disgrace  and  shame.  Bio- 
graphy tells  us  many  interesting  anecdotes  of  Mad- 
ame Le  Brun  with  Marie  Antionette,  as  well  as  with 
Queen  Louise  of  Prussia  and  with  Catherine  II  of 
Russia,  who  among  many  other  noted  people  sat 
to  her  for  a  picture. 

After  Ingres  the  most  noted  name  among  the 
painters  is  Delaroche,  an  historical  painter.  Then 
comes  Ferdinand  Victor  Eugene  Delacroix,  who 
has  been  called  the  "soul  of  his  age"  because  he  re- 
flected so  exactly  the  spirit  of  the  times.  He  was 
neither  classicist  nor  romanticist  but  painting  the  life 
of  the  soldier,  he  deepened  the  general  interest  of 
the  French  in  the  art  of  the  people.  Also  the  two 
painters.  Decamps  and  Fromentin,  called  Oriental- 
ists, strengthened  the  conviction  that  the  art  of  France 
was  not  the  province  of  the  few,  but  was  the  heritage 
of  the  many.     Perhaps  the  knowledge  of  her  free- 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  155 

dom  sobered  France.  At  any  rate  her  new  belief 
in  the  universality  of  art  soon  spoke  through  the 
Fontainebleau-Barbizon  School  notable  not  for  its 
emphasis  upon  meaning,  but  upon  light  and  color. 
It  was  in  1 83 1  that  this  group  of  men  exhibited  their 
nature  studies  of  plain  and  forest. 

Corot,  1796-1875  is  the  first  name  of  this  school 
and  his  pictures  are  general  favorites.  Fie  knew 
how  to  make  other  people  see  light  and  air  as  he  saw 
it.  His  power  with  the  brush  and  delicate  handling 
of  color  were  the  result  of  persistent  effort  through- 
out a  long  and  uneventful  life.  Corot  was  an  early 
riser,  a  simple  liver,  and  a  systematic  worker.  He 
dwelt  quietly  with  his  mother  and  found  his  greatest 
pleasure  in  his  work  and  in  quiet  evenings  at  home. 
When  his  pictures  became  of  value  he  found  little 
joy  in  saving  money  and  gave  generously  to  any 
need  which  came  to  his  notice.  He  lived  to  a  good 
old  age,  and  his  power  to  portray  cool  and  lovely 
landscape  with  people  therein,  airy  and  light,  never 
forsook  him. 

Rousseau,  the  friend  and  contemporary  of  Corot, 
was  another  landscape  painter  who  is  constantly 
growing  in  favor.  He  was  by  far  the  broadest  of 
his  school  in  his  treatment  of  nature.     He  never 


156  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

learned  the  secret  of  Corot*s  daintiness  in  color  and 
in  composition,  but  his  conception  was  more  sublime 
and  his  handling  more  vigorous. 

Contemporaneous  with  the  Fontainebleau-Barbi- 
zon  School  were  the  animal  painters  of  whom  Rosa 
Bonheur  is  the  greatest.  Her  chief  work  is  the 
"Horse  Fair,'*  a  large  canvas  purchased  by  the  late 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt  for  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
in  New  York  City.  Rosa  Bonheur  sprang  from  the 
bourgeoisie  and  endured  much  hardship  before  she 
became  a  great  painter.  The  story  is  told  of  her 
that  she  put  on  man's  attire  and  visited  the  slaughter 
houses  in  order  to  study  the  anatomy  of  the  animals. 
After  painting  the  "Horse  Fair",  sometimes  called 
the  "County  Fair,"  she  became  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  and  was  entitled  to  the  cross  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor.  However  the  emperor  re- 
fused to  decorate  her  because  she  was  a  woman. 

After  the  "Landscape  Painters"  it  was  a  natural 
step  for  the  "Peasant  Painters"  to  put  in  the  people, 
sowing,  reaping,  or  praying.  The  first  great  name 
of  this  group  is  Jean  Francois  Millet,  known  also  as 
a  rustic  genre  painter.  He  painted  the  peasantry 
in  the  district  from  which  he  came  in  such  pictures  as 
the  "Angelus,"  the  "Sower,"  and  the  "Gleaners." 


PAINTING,  OTHER  SCHOOLS  157 

Jules  Breton  is  another  painter  of  this  class.  His 
**Song  of  the  Lark",  in  the  Art  Institute  at  Chicago, 
is  one  of  his  most  popular  works. 

After  the  "Peasant  Painters",  the  "Genre**  art- 
ists came  to  the  front.  The  first  name  among  them 
is  Jean  Louis  Meissonier.  He  painted  into  his  pic- 
tures all  the  passion  of  French  idealism  with  the 
skill  and  precision  of  a  realist.  His  pictures  of  Na- 
poleon, especially  **1814,'*  are  justly  famous.  In 
the  Art  Institute  at  Chicago,  is  his  "Vidette,**  a 
small  easel  picture  which  shows  to  advantage  most 
of  Meissonier's  characteristics  as  an  artist. 

Another  great  name  of  the  French  School  is  Wil- 
liam Adolphe  Bouguereau,  whose  work  is  remark- 
able for  its  taste  and  refinement.  His  flesh  tints  are 
unique  and  very  pleasing.  Some  of  his  pictures 
can  be  seen  in  the  galleries  of  our  American  cities. 
Unlike  Bouguereau  is  Puvis  de  Chavannes,  the 
greatest  modern  mural  French  painter.  He  discov- 
ered anew  the  principles  of  decorative  art,  and  his 
drawing  became  more  and  more  simple  and  his 
color  less  and  less  violent.  On  the  walls  of  the 
Pantheon  at  Paris  he  has  placed  a  series  of  frescoes 
representing  the  life  of  St.  Genevieve.  This  work 
is  more  characteristic  than  are  his  decorations  on  the 
walls  of  the  Public  Library  in  Boston. 


1 58  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

Lastly  French  art  has  developed  a  School  of  Im- 
pressionists. To  this  group  belongs  Bastien  Le- 
page whose  mantel  picture  of  Joan  d'  Arc  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York  City,  is  so  gen- 
erally known  and  liked.  The  last  name  of  this 
School  to  win  recognition  is  Claude  Monet.  He 
worked  on  the  principle  that  color  is  light  in  a  decom- 
posed form,  and  became  a  storm  painter  and  master 
of  the  violet  shadow. 

This  ends  the  chronicle  of  French  Art,  in  aim, 
motive,  and  theme,  a  fit  sucessor  to  the  Italian 
School.  Its  devotion  to  art,  its  diligence  and  its 
methods  of  self-expression  are  equally  truthful  and 
suggestive.  To  the  Salons,  to  the  French  Acadamy 
and  to  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  modern  art  turns 
to-day  for  leadership. 

We  leave  Italy  and  France,  the  sunshiny  lands  of 
painting,  and  turn  to  the  melancholy  Spaniards, 
whose  pictures  like  themselves  show  the  heavy  dom- 
ination of  the  church  and  an  excessive  superstition. 
Their  technique  came  from  Italy  and  their  subjects 
from  Flanders.  In  spirit  only  are  they  peculiarly 
Spanish,  to  which  fact  their  sombre  coloring  and 
total  lack  of  poetic  imagination  testify.  Their  early 
art  is  marked  by  no  clear  and  gradual  dawn.     Up 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  159 

to  the  fourteenth  century  there  were  very  small  be- 
ginnings, and  it  was  not  until  1 516,  when  Charles 
V  ascended  the  throne,  that  art  in  Spain  received  a 
decided  impetus.  And  even  then  her  artists  did  not 
develop  a  natural  manner  until  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. This  manner,  in  its  brutal  emphasis  upon  the 
agony  of  Christ,  suggests  that  her  painting  is  but  the 
"drudge"  of  the  church  and  perhaps  a  servant  of  the 
Spanish  inquisition.  Up  to  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury all  portrayal  of  the  nude  was  prohibited  and 
from  first  to  last  the  school  lacked  originality.  There 
are  only  three  schools  in  Spanish  painting,  the  "Cas- 
tilian"  or  School  of  Madrid,  the  School  of  Valencia, 
and  the  "Andalusian'*  or  School  of  Seville.  Under 
the  Castilian  School  we  find  the  first  artist  born  and 
bred  in  Spain,  Luis  de  Morales.  He  was  a  hard 
worker  who  overcame  great  difficulties,  but  he  had 
many  limitations  which  his  pupils  copied. 

The  great  name  in  the  School  of  Madrid  and  the 
greatest  in  Spanish  art  is  Diego  de  Silva  Velasquez, 
1599-1660.  He  alone  reflected  to  advantage  the 
nationalism  of  Spain.  Velasquez  was  of  noble 
birth  and  early  went  to  school  to  the  painters.  When 
only  nineteen  he  married  the  daughter  of  an  artist. 
At  twenty-three  through  the  help  of  his  father-in- 


1 60  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

law  he  was  a  privileged  member  of  the  Spanish 
Court  with  congenial  work,  luxurious  surroundings, 
and  many  appreciative  friends.  He  lived  sixty 
years,  respected,  unspoiled,  industrious,  and  beloved. 
He  fulfilled  many  important  trusts,  was  beloved  by 
Rubens  who  made  him  a  nine  months*  visit,  and  by 
several  Italian  painters  whom  he  came  to  know  dur- 
ing his  two  trips  to  Italy,  in  which  he  bought  most 
of  the  foreign  pictures  which  are  found  in  Spain  to- 
day. To  the  end  of  his  long  life  he  was  showered 
with  commissions,  but  remained  sober,  industrious, 
and  high-minded.  One  of  his  greatest  pictures  is 
the  "Infanta  Marguerite**  in  the  Salon  Carre  of  the 
Louvre. 

Passing  over  the  School  of  Valencia,  we  turn  to 
the  "Andalusian**  or  School  of  Madrid,  and  find 
Bartolome  Esteban  Murillo.  He  had  a  less  fortu- 
nate start  than  Velasquez.  His  people  were  poor 
and  he  had  little  training.  He  earned  his  first 
money  by  painting  pictures  of  the  street  gamin  and 
selling  them  from  the  steps  of  the  Cathedral  on  fete 
days.  Later  when  he  had  learned  how  to  paint, 
he  produced  his  very  attractive  pictures  of  boy  life 
in  the  city  and  in  the  country.  His  "Children  of  the 
Shell"  is  a  popular  study  of  this  class.     In  time  he 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  161 

made  his  way  to  Madrid,  and  there  received  help 
from  Velasquez.  After  many  years,  when  Murillo 
had  learned  how  to  paint  under  Velasquez's  teach- 
ing the  latter  urged  him  to  go  to  Rome.  Instead 
Murillo  returned  to  Seville  and  established  the  Acad- 
emy there  which  is  still  a  center  of  instruction  and  of 
inspiration  in  art.  Murillo  was  able  so  to  portray 
the  Saints  and  Virgin  that  not  only  Spain,  but  the 
whole  modern  world  loves  his  "Holy  Family**  and 
"Immaculate  Conception." 

The  last  famous  painter  of  this  school  and  of 
Spain  is  Francisco  Goya,  called  the  Spanish  Ho- 
garth*' or  satirist  with  the  pencil.  His  realm  was  the 
cartoon  for  he  was  a  master  of  the  grotesque  who 
excelled  in  caricature.  His  best  work  is  his 
"Whims",  a  collection  of  eighty  illustrations  of 
Spanish  life.  With  him  the  account  of  Spanish  art 
closes,  a  school  of  many  promises,  but  one  in  which 
custom  and  imposed  standards  have  robbed  the 
painters,  for  the  most  part,  of  their  individuality. 

From  Spain  we  turn  to  the  painters  in  the  Nether- 
lands, a  school  in  which  fact  seldom  garbed  herself 
in  fancy.  A  quaint,  hardpressed  land  is  the  Nether- 
lands, with  the  sea  assailing  her  on  the  north,  east, 
and  west,  her  very  soil  a  miracle  of  effort  and  of 


1 62  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

achievement.  Her  people  are  busy  with  the  duties 
of  home  and  of  business.  They  are  thoughtful, 
hardy,  and  energetic,  simple  indeed,  plain  in  dress 
and  quaint  in  their  customs.  It  was  the  habit  of 
their  painters  to  paint  the  people  in  the  everyday 
garb  of  their  everyday  duties.  To  them  genre 
painting  was  a  method  of  expression  in  which  back- 
ground and  figures  became  a  balanced  part  in  an  har- 
monious whole.  However  through  many  centuries 
painting  here  as  elsewhere  was  the  servant  of  the 
church,  so  their  earliest  masters  painted  the  saints, 
the  Virgin,  and  the  Christ  with  the  faces  of  their 
friends,  and  in  the  costumes  of  their  people.  The, 
painters  of  the  Netherlands  are  grouped  in  two 
schools,  the  Flemish  and  the  Dutch.  They  are 
alike  in  technique,  in  subject,  in  composition,  and  in 
aim.  TTiey  sought  no  ideal,  no  historical,  no  land- 
scape theme.  Especially  to  the  Dutchman,  home 
was  a  paradise,  so  he  painted  the  home  and  its  ac- 
cessories, and  its  environs.  High  and  low,  rich  and 
poor,  shared  this  interest.  Portraiture,  history,  and 
animal  painting  had  their  place,  but  only  as  second- 
-ary  to  genre  studies.  Large  canvasses  were  used 
somewhat  in  these  three  classes  of  work,  but  the 
"Little  Masters"  the  genre  painters,  painted  only  on 


PAINTING,  OTHER  SCHOOLS  163 

small  canvasses  the  trivial  incidents  of  everyday  life. 
These  men  with  a  few  exceptions  were  the  art  lead- 
ers in  Holland. 

The  first  great  painters  in  the  Flemish  school  were 
the  Van  Eycks,*  Hubert  and  John.  Roger  Van 
Weyden,  the  realist,  and  Hans  Memling,  his  pupil. 
Next  is  Quentin  Matsys,  the  blacksmith  painter,  and 
Peter  Paul  Rubens,  1577-1640,  whose  "Descent 
from  the  Cross"  in  Antwerp  is  one  of  the  great 
World  Pictures.  The  last  of  these  older  painters 
is  Anthony  Van  Dyck,  Rubens'  greatest  pupil  and 
the  "gentleman"  portrait  painter  of  Europe.  It  is 
said  that  Van  Dyck,  1599-1641,  could  make  the 
plainest  looking  people  beautiful,  and  the  most  ple- 
beian, aristocratic.  These  men  are  by  far  the  great- 
est of  the  Flemish  school.  All  of  them  except  Van 
Dyck  won  fame  with  religious  subjects  according  to 
the  custom  of  the  day.  However,  when  Jacob  Jor- 
daens,  Ruben's  second  greatest  pupil,  and  David 
Teniers  the  Younger,  won  favor  through  mytholog- 
ical and  genre  subjects,  Flemish  art  had  found  the 


*The  Van  Eycks  are  responsible  for  the  oil  varnish  in  use 
in  these  northern  schools.  It  has  preserved  not  only  their  treas- 
ures, but  also  the  pictures  of  all  countries  to  the  art  world. 


1 64  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

final  trend.  The  last  great  man  of  this  school  is 
Alma-Tadema,  whose  "Reading  from  Homer"  is 
justly  famous. 

We  now  turn  to  the  Dutch  School.  Here  we  find 
s  jll  in  workmanship  and  charm  in  color.  Added  to 
tlie  trained  hand  is  an  abundance  of  sentiment  and 
of  feeling.  The  Dutch  painters  are  pre-eminently  ar- 
tistic, and  this  artistic  feeling  is  recorded  in  their 
pictures.  They  were  genre  men  from  the  first.  Franz 
Hals  was  a  portraitist  who  invariably  added  a  touch 
of  humor  to  his  likenesses.  He  was  followed  by  Rem- 
brandt van  Ryn,  1607-1669,  the  great  painter  of 
feeling,  and  by  far  the  greatest  name  of  this  School. 
Rembrandt's  "Anatomy  Lecture"  and  the  "Coat 
Makers"  in  the  Hague,  and  the  "Night  Guard"  in 
Amsterdam  are  among  the  most  famous  pictures  in 
the  world.  After  Rembrandt,  come  the  Dutch 
"J  ittle  Masters"  proper.  The  first  man  was  Gerard 
Terburg,  the  high  class  society  painter,  and  next 
came  Gabriel  Metsu,  who  painted  market  scenes  as 
we^^  as  sumptuous  homes.  Contemporaneous  with 
Terburg  and  Metsu  was  Gerard  Dow,  whose 
friends  claimed  that  he  could  paint  a  home  as  a 
"beaven  on  earth."  His  most  noted  picture  is  the 
"Dropsical  Woman"   in  the  Salon  Carre  of  the 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  165 

Louvre.  At  this  time  also  Van  Ostade  painted  his 
scenes  of  humble  Hfe,  and  Jan  Steen,  the  inebriate, 
painted  debauchery.  The  Hnk  between  the  genre 
and  the  landscape  painting  was  the  work  of  Pieter 
de  Hooch,  which  represented  outdoor  effects  seen 
through  an  interior,  and  van  der  Meer  of  Delft, 
who  combined  genre  work  with  landscape  painting. 
The  first  of  the  Dutch  landscape  men  is  Jan  van 
Goyen.  He  painted  successfully  canal  and  ocean 
scenes.  Another  name  is  Ruisdael's,  the  storm 
painter,  and  still  another  is  Hobbema,  whose  quiet 
village  scenes  now  command  fabulous  prices.  The 
middle  ground  between  landscape  and  animal  paint- 
ing was  taken  by  Philip  Wouverman,  who  painted 
cavalry  skirmishes  and  landscapes  with  horses  done 
in  rich  transparent  colors.  He  had  a  habit  of  plac- 
ing a  white  horse  near  the  center  of  each  of  his 
pictures.  The  last  great  name  of  the  school  is 
Paul  Potter's.  He  is  famous  for  his  large  canvas 
of  the  "Young  Bull"  now  in  the  museum  at  the 
Hague.  His  work  was  so  excellent  that  copies  of 
his  pictures  are  to  be  found  in  books  on  Natural 
History,  and  scientists  delight  to  use  his  pictures  as 
illustrations.  In  so  brief  a  resume  of  the  school, 
we  pass  the  skillful  "still  life"  painters,  but  other- 
wise the  famous  names  have  all  been  mentioned. 


1 66  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

From  the  Netherlands  we  pass  to  Germany  and 
the  Germans,  the  mecca  of  musicians,  the  labora- 
tory of  the  scientists  and  the  paradise  of  the  scholar. 
Germany  is  to  Music  what  Italy  is  to  painting. 
None  who  has  felt  the  spell  of  the  Fatherland  can 
approach  any  of  her  activities  with  indifference. 

It  matters  little  that  Germany  was  slow  to  learn 
and  slow  to  produce  art  treasures.  Italian  art  had 
reached  middle  life  before  German  art  had  left  her 
cradle  of  crude  tapestries  and  of  awkward  architec- 
tural ornaments  on  a  blue  ground.  But  from  the 
first,  German  art  was  sturdy  with  an  eye  for  meaning 
rather  than  for  beauty.  Moreover  the  growth  in 
realism  and  in  the  representation  of  character  soon 
distanced  even  Flemish  art.  Some  grace  and  re- 
finement of  representation  in  carefully  noted  and 
expressed  detail  made  German  art  distinctively  Ger- 
man from  the  fifteenth  century  on. 

Perhaps  the  slow  development  of  German  art 
through  the  medium  of  architecture  and  sculpture 
into  painting  is  due  to  the  very  nature  of  the  people. 
Back  in  the  barbaric  stage  they  were  hard  to  ^civilize 
and  to  Christianize.  Perhaps  this  made  them  less 
sensitive  to  the  beautiful.  At  any  rate,  in  the  early 
days,   artists  found   Germany   a  very  uncongenial 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  167 

home.  Their  point  of  view  differed  radically  from 
that  of  Italy,  and  throughout  all  the  early  stages  of 
their  art,  there  is  a  certain  coarseness  and  awkard- 
ness  which  are  characteristically  Teuton.  The  ear- 
liest painting  is  found  in  the  ninth  century  in  the 
form  of  illustrations,  and  some  poor  wall-paintings. 
In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  French 
influence  made  itself  felt  in  Germany.  Panel  paint- 
ing came  into  fashion  in  connection  with  the  first 
painter,  Meister  Wilhelm  who  established  a  school 
at  Cologne.  Shortly  after  this  another  school  was 
established  at  Prague  and  midway  between  them 
was  the  Nuremburg  School  of  which  Albrecht 
Dtirer  is  the  great  representative.  The  name  of 
this  school  which  centers  around  Nuremburg,  the 
city  made  famous  by  Durer,  the  painter,  and  Wag- 
ner, the  musician,  is  the  "Franconian." 

Albrecht  Durer's  is  by  far  the  greatest  name  of 
all  the  German  Schools.  He  was  a  realist  like  the 
Dutch  painters,  and  took  infinite  care  with  every 
detail  of  his  picture,  nevertheless  his  pictures  were 
forceil^^d  technically  expressive.  They  have  a 
certai^Hfcnetic  force  which  indicates  that  the  artist 
was  inspired.  His  subjects  were  mostly  religious, 
and  he  worked  only  in  oil  and  in  tempera.     With 


1 68  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

the  exception  of  a  trip  to  Italy,  he  lived  and  died 
in  Nuremburg.  Longfellow  writes  of  him  as  fol- 
lows: 

"Here  when    art    was    still    religion,    with    a   simple 

reverent  heart, 
Lived  and  laboured  Albrecht  Durer,    the  evangelist 

of  art; 
Hence    in    silence    and    in  sorrow,   toiling  still  with 

busy  hand. 
Like    an    emigrant    he    w^andered,    seeking    for    the 

better  land." 

The  German  "Little  Masters,**  painters  and  en- 
gravers, are  always  coupled  with  Durer.  The  best 
of  them,  Altdorfer,  was  a  rival  of  Durer's. 

The  Saxon  is  the  least  important  of  the  Germaa 
Schools.  Lucas  Cranach,  the  elder,  is  the  most 
noted  name  among  them. 

The  third  school  among  the  Germans  is  the  Swab- 
ian,  and  it  boasts  the  two  Holbeins.  Hans  Holbein 
the  Younger  is  the  greatest  painter  after  Durer. 
His  contemporaries  called  him  the  painter  with  the 
"inimitable  bloom."  He  was  a  portrait  painter  who 
like  Van  Dyck  spent  a  great  part  of  his  life  in  Eng- 
land. He  was  so  industrious  that  nearly  all  the 
Galleries  of  the  world  are  enriched  by  his  pic- 
tures. 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  169 

Early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  a  period  of 
Decadence  overtook  German  art.  Among  the 
painters  of  this  group  are  Raphael  Mengs,  a  classi- 
cist, and  his  gifted  pupil,  Angelica  Kauffman.  In 
the  nineteenth  century,  the  Prae-Raphaelites  had  a 
following  in  Germany.  Friedrich  Overbeck  and 
Wilhelm  von  Schadow  are  two  of  this  school.  How- 
ever the  three  modern  schools  which  are  best  known 
are  at  Munich,  where  Defregger  and  Bodenhausen 
among  many  others  have  made  a  name  for  them- 
selves, at  Dusseldorf,  where  Heinrich  Hofmann 
has  won  fame  through  his  pictures  of  the  Christ,* 
and  the  Berlin  School,  where  Gustav  Richter,  Hans 
Makart  and  Michael  Munkacsy  have  made  their 
fame.** 

This  is  a  brief  glimpse  ot  German  art,  but  we 
would  say  in  closing  that,  despite  her  late  develop- 
ment, Germany  is  now  a  director  as  well  as  a  con- 
servator of  the  interests  of  the  world  of  art. 

We  turn  now  to  England,  which  like  Germany 
was  late  in  developing  a  national  art.  One  histor- 
ian claims  that  the  English  are  not  of  a  pictorial 
cast  of  mind.  Various  theories  have  been  advanced 
for  their  late  development,  but  this  much  is  true, 

*Hofmann's  "  Christ  Among  the  Doctors"  is  perhaps  as  well 
Itnown  as  any  picture  in  the  country. 

** Makart  and  Munkacsy  belong  to  the  Austrian  School. 


1 70  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

that  poetry  and  literature  at  all  times  made  an  earlier 
and  a  stronger  impression  than  painting  or  sculpture. 
As  early  as  the  seventh  century,  there  was  a  decora- 
tive art  in  Ireland,  and  in  the  ninth  century  mass 
books  were  illumined  there  with  great  care.  This 
missal  art  lasted  until  the  fifteenth  century.  In 
these  early  years  England  borrowed  her  ideals  from 
France  and  Flanders.  With  the  House  of  Guelph, 
foreign  artists  entered  Britain  and  mixed  the  simpli- 
city of  the  Dutch  painters  into  the  foundation  of  art 
in  England.  The  Tudors  and  Stuarts  were  art  pa- 
trons and  encouraged  the  work  of  foreign  artists  up 
to  the  seventeenth  century.  The  last  House  es- 
pecially made  England  a  store  house  for  art  treas- 
ures. Charles  I  spent  $400,000  in  buying  the  Duke 
of  Mantua's  famous  collection.  This  won  for  him 
the  disapproval  of  the  English,  but  obtained  for 
England  some  originals  of  Titian,  Veronese,  and 
Correggio.  Real  sentiment  for  art  was  not  appar- 
ent among  the  English  people  until  the  eighteenth 
century,  but  nevertheless  the  national  art  of  England 
is  characteristic  and  able. 

The  first  name  of  importance  is  the  English  Ho- 
garth, the  satirist  whose  brush  taught  more  lessons 
than  pens  of  many  moralists.     He  was  a  painter  of 


PAINTING,  OTHER  SCHOOLS  171 

life,  whose  "Gin  Lane'*  and  "Idle  and  Industrious 
Apprentices"  point  a  warning  against  evil.  While 
he  painted  his  own  humor  into  his  pictures,  his 
method  of  painting  was  as  painstaking  as  the  old 
Dutch  masters. 

After  Hogarth,  we  find  the  most  eminent  English 
portraitist.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  1723-1792.  He 
was  particularly  successful  in  portraits  of  women 
and  children.  One  of  his  most  noted  portraits  is  of 
the  actress  Sarah  Siddons,  and  is  entitled  "The 
Tragic  Muse."  She  found  his  name  upon  the  bor- 
der of  her  dress  and  made  inquiry  about  it.  Said 
Sir  Joshua:  "I  could  not  forego  the  chance  of  send- 
ing my  name  down  to  posterity  on  the  hem  of  your 
garment."  Like  Van  Dyck,  Reynolds  always 
painted  his  sitters  at  their  best,  and  justly  earned  a 
reputation  which  outlasts  the  centuries.  His 
"Heads  of  Angels"  is  perhaps  his  best  known  pic- 
ture in  America,  but  England  knows  and  loves  his 
"Little  Mob-Cap,"  "Pickaback"  and  "Snake  in  the 
Grass." 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds 
had  a  rival  in  the  person  of  Thomas  Gainsborough, 
1727-1789.  He  first  won  fame  as  a  portraitist, 
but  posterity  knew  him  best  as  a  landscape  painter. 


1 72  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

Sir  Joshua  had  a  prejudice  against  the  use  of  blue 
in  a  picture.  To  prove  him  wrong,  Thomas  Gains- 
borough painted  his  famous  "Blue  Boy."  Later 
he  painted  Mrs.  Siddons  in  a  large  and  very  becom- 
ing hat,  which  gave  rise  to  the  expression  "a  Gains- 
borough hat."  He  studied  nature  and  added  a  na- 
tive decorative  sense  to  an  unusual  feeling  for  form 
and  color. 

The  third  great  portraitist  was  George  Romney, 
1 734-1802,  a  genre-painter  originally,  from  the  mid- 
dle class.  He  had  a  charm  with  color  and  a  grace 
in  line  which  is  seldom  surpassed.  One  of  his 
best  known  pictures  is  "Milton  dictating  to  his 
Daughters." 

The  next  noted  English  painter  was  Sir  Thomas 
Lawrence.  After  Reynolds,  Gainsborough,  and 
Romney,  he  holds  first  place  as  a  portraitist.  He 
was  an  impressionable  artist  and  some  of  his  work 
is  very  affected. 

After  several  less  important  names  in  the  English 
School  comes  Benjamin  West's,  an  American  cous- 
in, at  one  time  president  of  the  London  Academy, 
whose  constructive  genius  as  a  painter  won  for  him 
marked  appreciation.  In  the  annals  of  art,  he  is 
called  an  iconoclast,  because  he  knew  how  to  de- 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  1 73 

stroy  the  classical  idols  of  his  day.  After  him  all 
artists  discarded  the  Greek  robes  and  Roman  tunics. 
At  first  this  artist  brought  down  upon  himself  the 
clamour  of  conservatism,  but  even  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds came  to  acknowledge  that  it  was  more  fitting 
on  canvas  to  dress  a  general  as  a  general  than  in  the 
robes  of  a  Sophocles  or  a  Justinian. 

After  West,  art's  favor  tarries  with  John  Con- 
stable. His  is  the  first  name  among  the  English 
landscape  painters.  His  father  intended  him  for 
the  ministry,  but  at  an  early  age  he  showed  great 
talent  in  drawing.  Later  he  made  a  careful  study 
of  the  clouds  and  of  wind  and  of  water  mills,  a 
knowledge  which  served  him  well  in  due  time.  After 
a  great  deal  of  hard  work,  John  Constable  made  a 
name  and  fame  for  himself.  To-day  his  canvasses 
are  almost  priceless. 

The  second  name  in  the  list  of  landscape  painters 
and  the  first  name  in  English  art  is  that  of  Joseph 
Mallord  William  Turner.  He  is  the  sunshine  art- 
ist for  all  time  and  the  navy  painter  of  England.  A 
critic  of  his  day  said  that  artistically  Turner  was  a 
lion,  but  that  socially  he  was  a  bear.  The  great 
art  critic,  Ruskin,  says  that  Turner  effected  nobler 
skies,  mountains,  and  trees  than  any  other  painter. 


1 74  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

But  beyond  his  skill  with  these  there  was  his  ability 
to  paint  the  sea.  Turner  was  the  son  of  a  wig- 
maker  in  London,  and  he  was  brought  up  in  poor 
surroundings.  Before  he  was  very  old  his  mother 
lost  her  mind  and  he  had  little  in  his  life  to  encour- 
age him  to  find  the  beautiful.  Moreover  successive 
masters  with  whom  he  studied  pronounced  him  a 
failure  and  advised  him  to  give  up  trying  to  paint. 
Notwithstanding  this  his  ability  to  learn  made  him 
England's  greatest  painter.  He  died,  unmarried, 
leaving  a  collection  of  his  pictures  to  the  English 
Government.  Two  of  his  best  pictures  are  the 
"Fighting  Temeraire'*  and  the  "Ulysses'  Ship." 
When  he  became  famous,  he  refused  large  sums  for 
his  pictures,  which  are  now  in  the  Tate  Gallery  at 
London.  He  is  without  doubt  the  most  original  of 
the  artists  and  one  whose  richness  of  invention  and 
boldness  of  handling,  added  to  an  unprecedented 
treatment,  make  him  the  wonder  painter  of  his  time. 
The  English  School  has  a  few  genre  painters. 
Among  them  the  cautious  Scotchman,  David  Wilk- 
ie,  is  the  best  known.  He  has  been  called  "the 
plain  man's  friend"  and  the  "Goldsmith  among 
painters."  All  critics  say  that  his  genre  work  deep- 
ens our  love  for  mankind. 


PAINTING,  OTHER  SCHOOLS  1 75 

From  the  genre  artists,  we  turn  to  the  English  ani- 
mal painters  among  whom  Sir  Edwin  Landseer  is 
king.  He  was  **a  gentleman**  painter  whose  love 
for  animals  and  sympathy  for  their  distresses  live 
in  his  paintings  and  add  to  the  general  culture  of  the 
world.  Dogs  were  his  favorites  and  next  to  them 
he  enjoyed  painting  deer.  His  "Monarch  of  the 
Glen**  and  "Taking  a  Buck**  are  general  favorites 
in  America.  There  were  other  great  animal  art- 
ists, among  them  John  F.  Herring,  the  painter  of 
horses,  and  Edwin  Douglas,  unwisely  called  the 
"cattle  king**  in  art. 

The  last  and  by  far  the  most  unique  group  in 
English  art  is  the  Prae-Raphaelite  Brotherhood. 
This  movement  started  in  1 847  and  has  three  great 
names,  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  Holman  Hunt,  and 
Sir  John  Millais.  These  three  men,  together  with  sev- 
eral sculptors' and  poets,  made  a  study  of  the  art 
which  produced  Raphael,  believing  that  if  they  could 
reproduce  the  conditions,  that  they  could  reproduce 
the  art.  They  tried  to  imitate  the  simple  devotional 
lives  of  the  painters  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and 
thereby  to  gain  their  realism  and  their  ability  to 
draw.  Holman  Hunt,  1827-1910,  the  first  man, 
lost  his  sense  of  light  and  color  in  his  care  for  details. 


1 76  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

Rossetti,  1828-1882,  a  poet  as  well  as  painter,  had 
odd  mannerisms  in  his  pictures  of  women  and  chil- 
dren. Millias,  1829-1896,  had  a  feeling  for  the 
higher  genre  work,  and  produced  some  deservedly 
popular  pictures.  Among  them  are  the  "Hugenot 
Lovers,'*  "Yes  or  No"  and  the  "Boy  Blowing 
Bubbles." 

The  movement  of  Prae-Raphealitism  also  influ- 
enced Ford  Madox  Brown,  the  historical  painter, 
and  Burne-Jones,  1833-1898,  the  pupil  of  Rossetti. 
Burne-Jones*  "Vestal  Virgin,'*  his  "Aurora**  and 
many  others  are  good  examples  to-day  of  modern 
high  art. 

George  Watts,  1818-1911,  a  Welshman  and  a 
portrait  painter,  also  embraced  the  teaching  of  this 
Brotherhood.  His  "Sir  Galahad**  is  one  of  the 
best  examples  of  his  work.  In  this  picture  an  ideal 
youth  stands  by  a  snow  white  horse  of  noble  pro- 
portions. A  matted  and  tangled  underbrush  make 
up  the  background  and  give  horse  and  youth  a  cer- 
tain heroic  aspect  and  appeal. 

W.  Q.  Orchardson  was  a  painter  of  the  higher 
genre  and  had  a  style  akin  to  Hogarth's.  After 
him  there  are  two  notable  names,  Boughton's,  whose 
Puritans  and  Pilgrims  are  very  acceptable,  and 
Hubert  Herkomer,  a  portrait  painter. 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  177 

This  closes  the  discussion  of  the  English  School. 
Whether  masters  of  method  or  masters  of  mean- 
ing, no  group  nor  groups  of  men,  have  won  in  so 
short  a  time  such  skill  in  technique,  variety  in  com- 
position and  breadth  in  subject.  Nor  is  the  book 
of  English  art  ended.  The  present  looks  toward  a 
future  of  larger  effort,  greater  realization,  and  more 
perfect  art. 

As  a  mother  is  known  best  through  her  children, 
so  we  turn  to  America,  England's  child  of  larger 
growth,  and  gain  through  her  efforts  in  art  a  truer 
interpretation  of  England's  artistic  expression.  In 
America  as  in  England,  the  art  faculty  was  late  in 
developing.  Up  to  1 776,  America  was  without 
painters  and  sculptors.  Men  and  women  were  so 
busy  wresting  a  living  from  the  new  conditions  that 
conmiercial  values  alone  appealed  to  them.  More- 
over the  Quakers,  an  influential  and  sturdy  religious 
sect,  encouraged  the  lack  of  art  by  declaring  that 
it  was  unnecessary  and  harmful.  But  money  brought 
leisure  and  readiness  to  learn,  and  with  characteris- 
tic initiative,  alertness,  and  vigor,  American  artists 
soon  excelled  in  method,  in  composition,  and  in  sub- 
ject. In  the  early  day  men  from  England  came  over 
to  paint  the  portraits  of  the  colonists;  thus  art  made 


1 78  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

its  first  claim  upon  the  people.  Next,  young  men 
in  America,  dared  the  ocean  and  settled  in  England 
to  study  painting,*  and  Germany  and  France  soon 
attracted  American  students  as  well. 

The  second  eminent  painter  of  American  birth 
is  John  Singleton  Copley,  1737-1815.  He  did 
some  excellent  work  in  portrait  and  in  figure  paint- 
ing. In  color  and  in  composition  his  work  has  much 
that  is  admirable.  No  doubt  his  skill  with  color 
resulted  from  his  careful  study  in  Italy  of  Titian  and 
of  Correggio.  Copley  like  West  scorned  the  classi- 
cism of  the  day  and  brought  upon  himself  a  storm 
of  criticism. 

Copley  was  followed  by  three  eminent  portrait 
painters,  his  noted  pupil,  Charles  Gilbert  Stuart, 
1755-1828,  and  Charles  and  Rembrandt  Peale. 
These  men  were  masters  of  characterization,  and 
painted  portraits  of  the  leading  men  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. Charles  Peale  was  particularly  successful  in 
painting  Washington.  After  the  war,  in  the  peace 
which  prevailed,  the  need  of  art  and  of  artists  was 
felt  in  America. 

To  meet  this  emergency  came  men  like  Jarvis. 
Sully,  Charles  Loring  Elliott,  Harding,  Fuller  and 
Healy.     At  this  time,  also  Henry  Inman,  the  genre 

♦Benjamin  West. 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  1 79 

painter,  and  Edward  Malbone,  the  miniaturist,  be- 
came known.  A  little  later,  John  Trumball  embel- 
lished the  Capitol  at  Washington  with  mural  paint- 
ings of  the  War  of  Independence.*  At  this  time 
too  Emanuel  Leutze,  an  artist  of  German  birth  and 
training,  painted  "Washington  Crossing  the  Dela- 
ware," the  best  known  military  picture  in  the  annals 
of  American  art. 

A  great  favorite  in  his  early  day  was  Washing- 
ton Allston,  a  painter  of  high  ideals  and  of  noble 
aspirations.  He  studied  in  London  under  West, 
and  spent  several  years  in  Italy.  He  was  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  Roman  movement  in  America  and 
in  some  measure  modified  American  art  as  Ingres  had 
influenced  art  in  Europe.  Allston's  sphere  was 
broad.  He  painted  religious  subjects,  history,  por- 
traits, genre  pictures  and  landscape.  Some  critics 
call  him  the  "American  Titian,"  because  he  was 
such  a  master  of  color.  His  most  noted  pictures 
are  perhaps,  "TTie  Two  Sisters,"  and  "Jeremiah 
the  Scribe." 

If  there  is  a  "Middle  Period"  in  American  art, 
it  takes  in  the  first  six  decades  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury.    The  landscapists  developed  a  certain  char- 

*He  painted  the  well-known  "  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill"  and  the 
**  Declaration  of  Independence." 


1 80  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

acter  which  was  called  distinctly  American.  Thomas 
Cole,  1 801  -1 848,  was  the  pioneer  in  American  land- 
scape. Many  of  his  works,  like  those  of  his  contem- 
poraries in  England,  were  engraved.  Just  as  the  por- 
traitists had  added  a  "wonder-touch"  of  idealism, 
heroism,  and  brawn  to  the  American  statesman,  now 
Cole  and  his  followers,  the  White  Mountain  School, 
produced  a  marvel  of  color  and  of  composition  iu 
their  autumnal  scenes  along  the  Hudson. 

The  names  one  reads  in  art  annals  at  this  time 
are  John  F.  Kensett,  the  poetic  dreamer  in  land- 
scape, Frederic  Church,  a  giant  with  mountain 
scenery,  and  Hubbard  Hill,  with  whom  his  work  is 
associated.  Frederic  Church  brought  to  the  old  world 
the  tropical  moonlight  of  Mexico  and  the  Falls  of 
Niagara.  Other  names  are  Bierstadt  and  Moran, 
who  made  the  Rocky  Mountains  famous. 

Albert  Bierstadt  went  with  a  military  expedition 
in  1 858  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  This  experience 
taught  him  to  portray  their  wild  masses  of  shattered 
cliflF,  their  deep  lakes  and  silent  forests.  He  pre- 
served on  canvas  the  herds  of  buffalo  and  the  vast 
prairies,  as  well  as  the  mountain  cliffs  and  valleys 
of  California.  George  Iniiess,  Samuel  Coleman, 
and  R.  Swain  Gifford,  with  others  are  great  names 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  1 8 1 

who  have  deepened  America's  interest  in  landscape 
painting.  George  Inness  was  the  great  landscapist, 
whose  canvasses,  after  his  death,  commanded  such 
immense  prices.  His  pictures  are  called  "tone 
symphonies,"  and  in  his  "light  triumphs'*  he  rivals 
Turner.  Associated  with  this  group  are  William 
T.  Bradford,  the  ice-berg  artist,  and  W.  T.  Rich- 
ards, and  Mauritz  Hass,  the  marine  men.  Por- 
traiture grew  apace.  Chester  Harding,  1792-1866 
was  so  unique,  that  his  following  was  called  "the 
Harding  Craze."  Elliott  and  Inman  were  portrait- 
ists and  Inman  was  a  genre  painter  as  well. 

William  Morris  Hunt,  1 824-1 897,  brought  the 
methods  of  the  Fontainebleau-Barbizon  School  to 
America.     He  was  called  the  "American  Millet." 

Then  comes  what  critics  are  pleased  to  call  the 
"Third  Period"  in  American  Art.*  It  begins  with 
the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  Philadelphia  which 
seemed  to  unify,  to  organize,  and  to  universalize 
painting  in  America.  It  gave  a  great  impetus  to 
art  and  to  artists  in  educating  the  American  people 
in  the  qualities  of  taste  and  of  appreciation.  Socie- 
ties and  painters  came  into  prominence  all  over  the 


*An  outburst  of  art  is  sure  to  follow  a  period  of  prosperity, 
lor,  with  increasing  riches,  comes  a  demand  for  beauty  in  all  its 
forms. 


1 82  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

country.  Young  men  studying  in  Munich  and  in 
Paris  returned  to  America.  At  first,  the  efforts 
here  seemed  to  be  but  an  echo  of  th<*  French  School 
and  ideals.  At  this  time  the  adornment  of  public 
buildings  made  a  marked  advance.  WiUiam  Mor- 
ris Hunt's  noble  pictures  of  "Flight  of  Night'*  and 
* 'Discoveries"  on  the  walls  of  the  old  Albany  State 
House,  which  soon  crumbled  away,  was  a  begin- 
ning. John  La  Farge  however  was  the  artist,  who 
elevated  mural  decoration  to  the  dignity  of  art  by 
his  pictures  in  Trinity  Church,  Boston. 

Three  great  modern  names  Elihu  Vedder,  John 
Singer  Sargent  and  James  McNeil  Whistler  follow 
Hunt.  Whistler's  art  seems  to  attain  to  perfection 
of  delicacy  in  both  line  and  color.  He  is  claimed 
by  the  English,  but  he  has  had  a  marvelous  influence 
on  recent  American  art.  Critics  say  that  his  influ- 
ence is  due  to  his  having  gathered  to  his  work  all 
that  is  finest  in  art.  It  reflects  the  spiritual  and 
thoughtful  element  of  the  Prae-Raphaelites  plus 
the  French  feeling  for  atmosphere.  The  Japanese 
have  given  him  their  bright  harmony  of  tone  and 
Velasquez  his  dark  gray  backgrounds.  His  por- 
traits are  mysterious,  as  they  seem  to  lack  substance. 
His  pictures  consist  of  a  combination  of  two  or  more 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  183 

dominant  colors  arranged  in  a  system.  He  calls 
one  of  these  colors  a  note  and  the  system  a  melody. 
He  is  a  master  of  technical  effects  in  light,  in  air, 
and  in  space.  His  two  best  known  pictures  are 
portraits  of  his  mother  and  of  Thomas  Carlyle. 

After  1 860,  American  artists  very  generally  went 
to  Europe  to  discover  art's  secrets  in  the  Old  world. 
Paris,  especially,  became  an  art  center.  Mosler 
is  a  noted  genre  painter  who  shows  French  influence, 
and  Bridgeman,  another  such  painter,  is  the  "Amer- 
ican Gerome."  John  Singer  Sargent  has  become 
America's  greatest  portrait  painter.* 

The  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago  in  1903, 
gave  a  great  stimulus  to  the  growth  of  art  in  this 
country.  Here  was  a  collection  of  objects  of  art 
from  the  world  over.  More  important  than  the 
collection  was  the  artistic  form  of  the  White  City 
itself.  Her  sculpture  was  under  the  direction  of 
Saint  Gaudens,  and  her  mural  decorations  were  de- 
signed by  the  pupils  of  John  La  Farge.  Art  has 
been  defined  as  a  record  of  beauty.  The  "White 
City"  then  was  art.  It  had  in  it  the  element  of  per- 
sonality which  is  the  mark  of  higher  art.     This  ex- 

*Among  portrait  painters  mention  should  be  made  of  Louis 
Betts,  whose  beautiful  picture  of  Ella  Flagg  Young  is  justly  famous. 


184  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

hibition  demonstrated  the  value  of  loan  collections, 
but  it  did  more  than  that,  for  it  gave  birth  to  the 
present  tendencies  in  American  Art.  Thirty  years 
before  there  were  two  equally  well-balanced  schools 
of  American  Art,  portraiture  and  landscape.  To- 
day, fully  two-thirds  of  our  artists  are  in  the  land- 
scape school.  Even  the  genre  artists  can  be  classed 
in  this  group.  The  main  interest  of  all  artists  of 
the  landscape  group  is  the  great  outdoors. 

Visitors  in  the  Public  Library  in  Boston  enjoy 
Edwin  A.  Abbey's  frescoes  of  Sir  Galahad.  At 
this  time  also  appear  the  names  of  Childe  Hassam, 
the  impressionist,  and  of  Kenyon  Cox,  the  portrait- 
ist, landscapist,  sculptor  and  mural  painter.*  Elihu 
Vedder,  Abbott  H.  Thayer,  and  William  Chase 
are  three  of  the  best  well  known  modern  artists  in 
the  American  School.  One  of  the  last  great  names, 
and  called  by  some  the  greatest,  is  Winslow  Hom- 
er. His  pictures  are  American,  both  in  spirit  and 
in  subject.  It  is  said  that  Winslow  Homer's  best 
works  caught  the  waves  gnawing  at  the  rocks  and 
dragging  the  sea  weed  into  the  crevices. 


*Kenyon  Cox*»  work  may  be  seen  in  the  Congressional    Li- 
brary at  Washington. 


PAINTING.  OTHER  SCHOOLS  185 

Thus  ends  the  chronicle  of  American  painting, 
an  art  great  in  the  present,  but  one  that  promises  a 
greater  future,  because  American  art  has  still  to 
achieve  that  assurance  of  skill  and  confidence  of 
power  which  shall  make  this  country  abound  in 
such  high  accomplishments  that  her  artists  in  turn 
shall  become  the  teachers  of  the  world. 


1 86  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

The  Twelve  World  Pictures.* 

The  Last  Supper,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Santa 
Maria  delle  Grazie,  Milan. 

Descent  from  the  Cross,  Daniel  da  Volterra, 
Trinita  de  Monti,  Rome. 

Last  Judgment,  Michael  Angelo,  Vatican. 

Sistine  Madonna,  Raphael,  Dresden. 

Transfiguration,  Raphael,  Vatican. 

Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  Titian,  Academy, 
Venice. 

La  Notte,  Correggio,  Dresden. 

Immaculate  Conception,  Murillo,  Prado,  Ma- 
drid. 

Aurora,  Guido  Reni,  Rospigliosi  Palace,  Rome. 

Communion  of  St.  Jerome,  Domenichino,  Vati- 
can. 

Descent  from  the  Cross,  Rubens,  Cathedral, 
Antwerp. 

Night  Guard,  Rembrandt,  Gallery,  Amsterdam. 
or 

Beatrice  Cenci,  Guido  Reni,  Barberini  Gallery, 
Rome.  (An  alternate  of  Rembrandt's  Night 
Guard.) 

*A  list  of  pictures  borrowed  from  common  usage. 


Chapter  V 

Sculpture. 

"  The  strongest  impulse  in  his  nature  was  to  be  a 
giver  of  entertainment,  a  source  of  joy  in  others,  a 
recognized  element  of  delight  in  the  little  world 
where  he  moved." 

—Henry  Van  Dyke:    The  Ruling  Passion. 

Sculpture  is  the  artistic  expression  of  the  plastic 
sense.  Like  architecture  and  painting,  it  begins  in 
the  valley  of  the  Nile,  in  Egypt,  that  country  about 
750  miles  long  and  only  10  miles  wide,  but  with 
an  antiquity  of  5000  years  before  Christ.  The 
country  has  three  divisions:  Lower  Egypt,  from  the 
sea  to  modern  Cairo;  Middle  Egypt,  from  Cairo 
through  old  and  new  Memphis,  to  the  beginnings 
of  the  Libyan  Desert;  and  Upper  Egypt,  from  the 
last  division,  through  Karnak,  Luxor,  Thebes,  Phi- 
lae,  and  the  modern  Aswan  to  the  Second  Cataract. 
The  history  of  Egypt  groups  itself  naturally  about 
these  three  divisions.  First  we  learn  of  the  Ancient 
Empire,  which  boasts  an  antiquity  of  five  thousand 

187 


1 88  APF  RECIATION  OF  ART 

before  Christ.  This  lasted  two  thousand 
years,  from  5000  to  3000  B.  C,  during  which  time 
occurred  the  first  ten  dynasties.  The  capital  was  at 
Memphis.  The  Middle  Empire  lasted  from  3000 
to  2100  B.  C,  and  covered  the  eleventh,  twelfth, 
and  thirteenth  dynasties. 

The  capital  was  at  Thebes.  TTie  third  period 
of  Egyptian  history  is  known  as  "The  Hyksos  In- 
vasions** from  2 1 00  to  1 700  B.  C.  These  invaders 
were  from  Syria,  and  they  came  to  take  possession 
of  the  inviting  pasture  lands  of  the  Delta.  They 
became  known  as  the  "Shepherd  Kings.'*  Despite 
their  violence  and  barbarous  destruction  of  monu- 
ments, these  people  became  a  refuge  for  the  fam- 
ilies in  Egypt,  who  in  turn  transformed  these  intrud- 
ers into  civilized  and  cultured  Egyptians.  Possessed 
of  a  strong  political  nature  through  four  dynasties 
of  kings,  they  gave  Egypt  a  strongly  centralized  gov- 
ernment. From  1700  to  1000  B.  C,  is  the  period 
of  the  New  Empire  and  of  the  eighteenth,  nineteenth 
and  twentieth  dynasties.  It  was  during  the  next 
to  the  last  dynasty  that  the  names  of  the  great  Seti 
I  and  Rameses  II  occur.  The  latter  was  the 
"new  king  which  knew  not  Joseph.**  The  eight- 
eenth and  nineteenth  dynasties  covered  the  reigns 


SCULPTURE  189 

of  the  well  known  conquerers  and  builders.  Dur- 
ing the  last  one,  the  famous  "Hall  of  Columns*'  in 
the  Temple  of  Karnak  at  Thebes  was  builded,  and 
also  the  most  beautiful  sepulchre  in  the  Valley  of 
the  Tombs  of  the  Kings.  The  last  two  divisions 
of  Egyptian  History  are  the  Decadence  Period 
from  1000  to  332  B.  C,  and  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Period  from  322  B.  C.  to  358  A.  D.  Egypt  was  a 
respecter  of  knowledge  and  in  the  earliest  days  built 
her  aristocracy  upon  skill  in  special  branches  of 
learning.  In  ancient  Egypt,  the  king,  an  absolute 
monarch,  was  at  the  head  of  all  ecclesiastical,  civil, 
and  social  life.  The  architect,  the  sculptor,  the 
musician,  the  merchant,  the  soldier,  and  the  priest 
were  the  first  owners  and  tillers  of  the  soil.  To 
them  belonged  all  legal  rights.  The  religion  of 
the  Egyptians  was  a  very  prominent  part  of  their 
national  life,  and  with  it  they  gained  a  comprehen- 
sion of  size  and  space,  which  after-nations  were  late 
in  attaining.  Later,  in  the  days  of  conquest,  the 
slaves  formed  a  great  part  of  the  industrial  class  and 
were  the  tillers  of  the  soil.  The  population  in  those 
days  was  large,  but  to-day  there  are  nine  millions 
of  people  distributed  among  twenty  thousand  cities. 
The  old  divisions  of  society  are  gone,  and  the  people 


190  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

for  the  most  part  are  divided  into  three  classes,  the 
Arab,  the  Beduoin  and  the  "fallaheen."  The  first 
two  are  the  guides  and  merchants.  The  last  name 
is  given  to  the  peasants  or  farmers. 

For  six  thousand  years,  the  world  has  looked  up- 
on the  great  pyramids,  the  mammoth  Sphinx,  and 
the  Temples  of  Karnak  and  Luxor,  appalled  at  their 
size  and  unable  to  fathom  the  mystery  of  their 
building.  Mighty  blocks  are  piled  upon  one  another, 
the  evidence  of  great  architectural  skill,  but  with 
no  hint  of  the  method.  These  mighty  temples  and 
tombs  are  a  monument  to  the  Egyptian  interest  in 
the  journey  of  the  soul  after  death  through  the  Val- 
ley of  the  Shadows.  Polytheism,  or  groups  of  di- 
vinities at  the  head  of  which  was  one  supreme  God, 
made  up  their  religion.  Nature  worship,  or  devo- 
tion to  the  sun,  moon  and  stars,  played  a  great  part 
in  it.  Fetichism,  or  worship  of  the  bull,  the  ibis 
and  the  crocodile,  was  the  third  factor  in  religion 
which  supplied  almost  all  of  the  interest  and  of  the 
activity  in  the  life  of  the  Egyptian.  Also  the  soul 
of  man  received  a  great  deal  of  attention.  It  is 
easy  to  see  from  his  mythology  that  the  fancy  of  the 
Egyptian  regarded  beauty  as  of  little  importance, 
but  the  elements  of  time,  place,  and  meaning  are  em- 
bodied in  his  sculpture. 


SCULPTURE  191 

The  sculpture  of  the  Egyptian  is  almost  entirely 
a  record  of  his  religion.  In  this  he  placed  great  em- 
phasis upon  the  future  life,  so  his  deeds,  generally, 
were  influenced  by  his  interest  in  to-morrow.  Thus, 
even  his  historical  records  cut  in  outline  frequently 
testify  to  his  religion.  There  is  outline  sculpture 
on  the  wall  of  his  tombs,  of  his  temples  and  of  his 
gateways.  For  instance,  on  the  pylon  of  the  Ram- 
csseum  at  Thebes  is  cut  the  scene  of  Rameses  II, 
deserted  by  his  army  and  fighting  his  way  through 
fire.  Color  was  an  integral  part  of  all  their  sculp- 
ture used  no  doubt  to  temper  the  glare  of  sunlight 
as  well  as  to  make  the  art  more  ornate.  From  a 
record  of  deeds  in  bare  outline,  sculpture  soon  took 
the  place  of  modern  photography  in  sculpture  in  the 
round.*  In  their  temples  and  tombs  were  often 
halls  of  statues,  in  which  rows  of  likenesses  in  stone 
served  to  cheer  the  soul  on  its  way  through  the  Val- 
ley of  Shades.**  One  of  the  most  noted  ex- 
amples of  work  in  the  round  is  the  colossal  statue 
of  Rameses  II  at  Thebes.  This  was  60  feet  high, 
but  is  now  thrown  down,  face  upward,  and  is  badly 


♦Sculpture  in  the  round  has  no  background.     To    this    class 
belongs  the  statuary  of  today  with  which  all  are  familiar. 

**The  Valley  of  Shades  conforms  in  part  to  the  present  idea 
of  Purgatory. 


1 92  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

mutilated.  It  weighs  700  tons.  Near  Thebes  also 
are  the  colossi  of  Memnon.  They  are  hewn  out  of 
a  hard  grit-stone,  and  also  stand  about  60  feet  above 
the  ground.  One  of  them  is  known  as  the  Vocal 
Memnon. 

If  we  were  to  start  at  modern  Cairo  for  a  trip  up 
the  Nile,  at  the  outset  we  should  recognize  the 
wealth  of  material  for  sculpture  and  the  quantity  of 
production  to  be  found  in  Egypt.  Here  is  coarse 
limestone  and  basalt  and  diorite  from  the  mountains 
of  Arabia.  The  "Sphinx"  and  obelisks  are  made 
of  red  granite  from  the  region  of  the  First  Cataract. 
Red  porphyry,  prized  by  the  Greek  and  Roman, 
bronze,  alabaster,  and  ebony  are  to  be  had  here  in 
abundance. 

The  Egyptian,  carving  for  eternity,  of  course 
favored  the  hardest  material,  basalt,  diorite,  and 
granite.  With  his  point  or  chisel,  his  saw  with  jew- 
eled teeth  and  his  instrument  of  flint  for  fine  details, 
the  sculptor  recorded  his  high  purpose.  He  worked 
in  outline  and  in  "bas"  and  in  high  relief.  He  also 
worked  in  statuary  in  the  round.  His  erect  figures 
stand  face  front,  with  arms  glued  rigidly  to  the  sides. 
His  seated  figures  and  kneeling  or  squatting  sub- 
jects are  generally  conventionalized,   stiff,   square. 


SCULPTURE  193 

and  flat,  and  noticeably  lacking  in  curved  lines  and 
surfaces.  Tliese  statues  were  polished  with  crushed 
sandstone  and  emery,  then  were  covered  with  stucco 
and  lastly  were  painted.  As  the  standard  sculp- 
ture now  is  uncolored,  the  modern  world  has  no  con- 
ception of  the  effect  of  the  polychromatic  statuary 
and  relief  of  early  times. 

The  Egyptian  had  little  regard  for  grouping, 
which  was  stiff  and  ineffective.  Two  figures  are 
standing,  two  are  sitting,  or  one  is  sitting  and  one  is 
standing.  Sometimes  a  child  is  added.  The  bod- 
ies are  as  a  rule  thickset,  and  the  chief  subjects  are 
generally  the  largest.  Very  soon  childhood  and 
age  both  disappear  and  the  colossal  takes  their  place. 
In  all  their  sculpture  there  is  little  regard  for  unity 
of  effect,  and  their  one  thought  seems  to  be  to  avoid 
a  vacuum. 

At  Luxor  and  Karnak  are  the  most  wonderful 
ruins  in  Egypt.  Here  the  Hypostyle  Halls,  stu- 
pendous in  plan  and  in  execution,  are  covered  with 
outline  records.  Between  these  two  ancient  cities  was 
an  avenue  6500  feet  long  and  80  feet  wide,  which 
was  adorned  on  either  side  by  a  row  of  sphinxes. 
Near  by  and  connected  by  an  avenue  of  ram-headed 
sphinxes  were  two  obelisks.     One  known  as  "Cleo- 


1 94  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

patra's  needle"  is  now  in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde 
in  Paris.  The  last  great  sculptural  feat  of  the  Egyp- 
tians to  be  mentioned  is  the  giant  Sphinx  near  Gizeh. 
This  recumbent  body  is  about  150  feet  in  length 
with  paws  50  feet  long.  The  human  face  is  30 
feet  long  and  14  feet  wide.  The  top  of  the 
head  to  the  base  measures  about  70  feet.  It  is  cut 
out  of  solid  stone  with  occasional  pieces  added.  At 
one  time  the  face  was  colored  red,  and  in  all  prob- 
ability the  whole  head  had  a  limestone  covering. 

Sym^bolism  formed  a  great  part  of  the  sculpture 
in  the  tombs  and  temples.  The  gods  were  repre- 
sented by  animal  heads  upon  human  bodies.  The 
hawk,  the  jackal,  the  ram,  the  crocodile,  the  cow, 
the  cat,  and  the  lion  are  frequently  found.  Egypt, 
as  we  have  seen,  was  rich  in  stones,  but  as  the  Egyp- 
tian carved  for  eternity,  he  selected  generally  the 
hardest  material,  basalt,  diorite,  or  granite.  Sculp- 
ture in  Egypt  seemed  to  change  very  slowly.  It 
was  early  a  well  developed  art,  and  sculptors  lent 
the  charm  of  their  work  to  domestic  and  to  daily 
use.  Thus,  cut  in  outline,  we  find  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  people  as  well  as  their  universal  inter- 
est in  politics,  the  piety  of  their  living  and  their  habit 


SCULPTURE  195 

of  animal  and  of  nature  worship.  Nevertheless,  all 
of  these  records  are  curiously  silent  as  to  the  methods 
of  constructing  their  vast  public  structures. 

We  called  the  Egyptian  a  man  of  mystery  because 
he  never  revealed  the  secret  of  the  pyramids  and  the 
sphinx.  With  even  greater  cause  we  wonder  at 
the  Greek,  who  long  before  the  "Great  Teacher," 
the  living  embodiment  of  Truth,  had  wrought  in  the 
hearts  of  men,  discovered  in  limestone,  in  marble, 
and  in  bronze,  the  mystery  of  the  Good,  the  True, 
and  the  Beautiful.  The  plastic  sense  is  a  common 
heritage,  but  in  harmony  with  the  principle  of  com- 
pensation, or  the  divine  economy  of  Nature,  the 
Maker  saw  fit  to  conserve,  to  develop,  and  to  ex- 
press the  marvelous  possibilities  of  this  faculty,  the 
plastic  sense,  through  the  Greek. 

Therefore,  from  the  blue  sky  and  sea-green  Nile 
of  Egypt,  we  turn  to  sunny  Greece,  passing  over 
Babylonian,  Assyrian,  and  Pheonician  sclupture. 
The  work  of  these  three  countries  is  both  interesting 
and  worthy,  but  it  is  the  borderland  between  the  old 
sculpture  of  Greece  and  the  very  old  work  of  Egypt, 
and  partakes  in  many  ways  of  the  characteristics  of 
both  countries.  The  classic  land  of  Greece  is 
mountainous,  rough,  and  rugged.     Long  arms  of 


1 96  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

the  sea  divide  this  peninsula  into  three  parts :  North- 
ern Greece,  or  the  countries  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus, 
Central  Greece,  and  the  Peloponnesus  or  Southern 
Greece.  A  range  of  mountains  runs  from  east  to 
west  in  the  North,  and  various  ranges  at  right-angles 
extend  to  the  southern  coast.  In  the  North  is 
Olympus,  6000  feet  high,  the  home  of  Zeus  and  of 
his  heavenly  companions.  In  central  Greece,  in 
Attica,  is  Athens,  with  its  suburb  Eleusis.  In  cen- 
tral Greece,  also,  is  Delphi,  with  its  Springs  of  Cas- 
talian  clearness.  In  southern  Greece  is  Argolis, 
with  its  capital,  Sparta,  and  the  cities  of  Mycenae 
and  Epidaurus.  On  the  west  coast  in  Elis  is  Olym- 
pia. 

Political  Greece  was  divided  into  Insular,  Ori- 
ental, Occidental  and  African  Greece,  into  a  di- 
versity of  interests  with  the  seas  as  a  bond  of  union. 
These  geographical  and  topographical  conditions  nat- 
urally resulted  in  a  decentralized  government.  Lo- 
cal governments,  while  not  uniformly  strong,  had  in 
them  elements  of  strength.  When  united  by  a  com- 
mon interest,  namely  war  against  Persia,  the  local 
strength  became  centralized  and  unified. 

The  Hellenes,  called  by  outsiders  "the  Greeks,'* 
drove  out  the  earliest  inhabitants.  These  Greeks 
were  divided  into  four  groups,  the  lonians,  the  Dor- 


SCULPTURE  197 

ians,  the  Achaeans  and  the  AeoHans.  Each  of 
these  four  groups  made  a  distinct  contribution  to  the 
national  character.  The  lonians  gave  their  poetic 
fancy,  which  became  the  polytheism  of  Greece.  The 
Dorians  gave  physical  beauty  and  prowess  which 
spoke  through  the  national  games,  and  the  Achaeans 
and  Aeolians  live  in  the  legends  of  Greece. 

The  Greeks  were  natural  artists.  They  had  an 
innate  sense  of  the  beautiful  and  an  exquisite  feeling 
for  fitness,  harmony,  and  proportion.  In  all  prob- 
ability, the  clear  cut  and  rugged  contour  of  the  land 
developed  their  plastic  sense.  Then  the  isolation 
of  communities  between  the  mountain  barriers  de- 
veloped their  local  pride  and  power.  The  Greeks 
combined  poetry  with  their  religion,  and  they  avoid- 
ed all  that  was  dismal  or  hideous.  The  religion  of 
the  Greeks  is  an  integral  part  of  their  art.  They 
believed  that  the  earth  was  a  plane,  round  like  a 
shield.  About  it  flowed  "the  ocean-river,"  beyond 
which  all  was  Cimmerian  darkness.  The  heavens 
were  a  dome  which  shut  down  upon  the  earth. 
Hades  was  under  the  earth  and  could  be  reached 
only  by  underground  passages.  Beneath  Hades 
was  an  awful  pit,  Tartarus,  closed  by  gates  of  brass 
and  iron.  The  extreme  East  and  West,  the  abode 
of  the  sun,  were  lands  of  light  and  of  plenty.     The 


198  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

sun  himself  was  an  archer-god  who  traversed  the 
pathway  of  the  skies  in  a  fiery  chariot.  On  the 
west  of  the  ocean  river  were  the  Elysian  Fields, 
where  the  souls  of  heroes  and  of  poets  lived  after 
death.  We  have  said  that  the  lonians  gave  Greece 
polytheism.  This  took  the  form  of  belief  in  an 
Olympian  Council,  composed  of  six  gods  and  six 
goddesses,  as  follows:  god-father,  Zeus  (Jupiter); 
god-mother,  Hera  (Juno);  Poseidon  (Neptune), 
ruler  of  the  sea;  Athena  (Minerva)  or  Pallas,  god- 
dess of  wisdom;  Apollo,  or  Phoebus,  god  of  light, 
music,  and  prophecy;  Apdrodite  or  Venus,  born  of 
sea-foam,  goddess  of  love  and  of  beauty;  Ares  or 
Mars,  the  god  of  War;  Diana,  or  Artemis,  goddess 
of  the  chase ;  Hephaestus,  or  Vulcan,  the  deformed 
god  of  fire  and  of  thunderbolts;  Hestia  or  Vesta, 
the  goddess  of  the  hearth ;  Hermes,  or  Mercury,  the 
wing-footed  messenger  of  the  celestials;  and  Deme- 
tor  or  Ceres,  the  goddess  of  grains  and  of  the  har- 
vest. Besides  these,  there  were  lesser  gods,  nymphs, 
fates,  and  monsters.  The  personification  of  deities 
demostrates  the  poetic  fancy  of  this  most  interest- 
ing people.  Their  tomb  and  temple  sculpture  very 
early  shows  their  belief  in  and  their  longing  for 
the  beautiful. 


SCULPTURE  199 

We  know  very  little  of  what  the  Greek  artist  had 
in  mind,  but  we  know  that  the  plastic  sense  in  him 
was  very  strong.  We  know  that  the  jagged,  clear- 
cut  mountain  sides  spoke  through  the  clear  atmos- 
phere of  Greece  to  his  artistic  impulse;  also  that 
the  wealth  of  the  quarries  and  mines  urged  him  to 
express  himself  in  stone  and  in  bronze.  And  we 
conjecture  that  his  poetic  fancy,  strengthened  through 
song  and  through  story,  sent  him  on  a  quest  for  an 
Apollo  or  for  an  Aphrodite  in  each  block  of  marble. 
It  must  not  be  supposed  that  every  Greek  was  a 
sculptor,  or  even  an  appreciator  of  sculpture,  nor 
does  there  remain  a  large  amount  of  really  perfect 
work,  but  this  must  be  understood:  the  sculptors  of 
Greece  were  many ;  they  attained  to  the  highest  stan- 
dard of  excellence  that  has  yet  been  achieved ;  they 
had  an  unusual  native  appreciation  of  fitness  and 
proportion;  and  a  plastic  sense  which  made  sculp- 
ture a  necessity  and  a  natural  expression;  their  en- 
vironment, their  religion,  their  traditions,  their  leg- 
ends, and  their  myths  gave  them  ample  subjects 
for  expression. 

Students  of  Greek  sculpture  have  formulated  five 
principles.  The  first  is  that  the  sculptor  always 
aimed  for  adequacy  of  expression.     It  is  evident 


200  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

that  a  piece  of  sculpture  can  express  but  one  instant 
of  time.  This  incident  must  be  of  sufficient  dra- 
matic importance  to  warrant  its  being  caught  and 
chiseled  into  stone.  Therefore,  adequacy  of  ex- 
pression subsumes  selection  of  subject,  as  well  as  full 
portrayal  of  character  and  of  detail. 

The  second  principle  is  simplicity.  True  sim- 
plicity is  rarely  spontaneous.  In  his  effort  to  achieve, 
the  Greek  sculptor  found  that  simplicity  is  only  an 
other  name  for  perfection  in  art. 

The  third  principle  was  of  equal  power  and  im- 
port, namely,  that  the  highest  achievements  in  art 
are  the  result  of  clear  thinking  and  right  feeling. 
TTie  Parthenon  is  a  fine  demonstration  of  this  prin- 
ciple. 

The  fourth  principle  is  that  a  work  of  art  appeals 
to  the  higher  faculties  in  man.  For  instance,  the 
nude  in  Greek  art  does  not  debase,  it  exalts  the  on- 
looker. 

The  fifth  principle  is  that  the  artist  borrows 
shapes  from  objective  nature  only  in  order  to  appeal 
to  the  subjective  nature.  In  other  words,  each 
statue  was  the  embodiment  of  an  idea  whose  dis- 
tinct purpose  was  to  appeal  to  the  onlooker. 


SCULPTURE  201 

Bas-relief  was  one  of  the  earliest  expressions  of 
their  plastic  sense.  What  outline  was  to  the  Egyp- 
tian, relief  was  to  the  Greek.  It  was  in  relief  that 
he  first  developed  this  marvelous  skill  with  drapery 
which  is  characteristic  of  his  work  and  ahead  of  all 
similar  effort  in  point  of  time.  Perfection  in  the 
nude  was  a  much  later  development. 

Closely  related  to  the  Greek  religion,  to  their 
gods  and  goddesses  and  lesser  deities,  were  their 
athletic  games.  The  Greek  believed  that  departed 
souls  delighted  in  feats  of  physical  prowess,  so  each 
city  of  any  note  had  its  stadium  in  close  proximity 
to  its  temples.  Gradually  these  grew  into  religious 
festivals  at  the  stadium  and  in  the  temple,  and  were 
shared  not  only  by  the  city,  but  by  a  whole  commun- 
ity. Four  of  these  festivals  became  very  famous: 
the  Olympian,  in  honor  of  Zeus,  at  Oylmpia  in  the 
Peloponnesus;  the  Pythian,  in  honor  of  Apollo,  at 
Delphi ;  the  Nemaean,  in  honor  of  Zeus,  at  Nemea ; 
and  the  Isthmian,  held  in  honor  of  Poseidon,  on  the 
isthmus  at  Corinth.  These  games  v/ere  held  every 
four  years,  and  the  interval  between  them  became 
known  as  an  Olympiad,  a  unit  of  time  among  the 
Greeks.  For  ten  centuries  these  games  exerted  a 
Vvholesome,  stimulating,  and  unifying  influence  upon 


202  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

the  literary,  social,  religious  and  artistic  life  of 
Greece.  It  was  in  connection  with  these  games  that 
athletic  subjects  like  the  **Discus-thrower*'  and  the 
"Wrestlers"  entered  Greek  sculpture. 

The  portraiture  of  the  Egyptian  also  early  found 
its  way  into  Greek  sculpture.  Thus  we  have  in 
order  bas-relief  on  temples,  tombs  and  public  build- 
ings ;  sculpture  in  the  round,  under  which  comes  the 
temple  statuary,  namely  the  Venuses,  the  Apollos, 
the  Hermes,  and  so  forth ;  athletic  sculpture  like  the 
"Dying  Gaul"  and  the  "Runner;"  portrait  statues, 
namely  those  of  Sophocles  and  Euripides*;  and 
group  sculpture,  like  the  "Laocoon"  and  the  "Farn- 
ese  Bull." 

Greek  sculpture  can  be  divided  according  to  form 
into  statuary  in  the  round  detached  from  the  back- 
ground, high  or  low  relief,  incised  or  excised  carv- 
ing, and  outline  statuary.  It  can  be  divided  accord- 
ing to  size  into  colossal,  heroic,  life  size,  and  stat- 
uette. Moreover,  statues  vary  in  position.  There 
are  standing,  seated,  recumbent,  and  equestrian 
statues.  They  vary  according  to  material.  They 
are  done  in  marble,  bronze,  terra-cotta  or  baked 
clay,  plaster  of  Paris,  limestone,  wood,  gold,  ivory, 
and  in  precious  stones. 

♦The  Romans  surpassed  the  Greeks  in  portrait  sculpture. 


SCULPTURE  203 

Greece  had  a  great  deal  of  marble.  Athens  alone 
had  two  quarries,  the  Pentelican  and  the  Hymettian. 
In  Laconia,  the  most  southern  country  in  southern 
Greece,  in  Boeotia,  and  in  western  Asia  Minor, 
there  were  more  extensive  quarries.* 

The  sculptor  worked  with  saw,  punch,  drill, 
square,  and  curved  and  claw-edged  chisels.  He 
generally  built  the  statue  up  from  several  pieces. 
Then  he  sand-papered  the  surface,  rubbed  it  with 
oil  and  molten  wax,  and  lastly,  he  colored,  and  fre- 
quently he  gilded  it.  Their  roughest  statues  were 
often  finished  with  a  thin  layer  of  stucco  mixed  with 
color.  Their  crudest  and  earliest  work  had  much 
color. 

Greek  sculpture  may  well  be  classified  according 
to  subject  into  religious,  civic,  domestic  and  sepul- 
chral. The  first  is  by  far  the  largest  class.  It  was 
found  not  only  inside,  but  outside  the  temples  as 
well.  At  first  the  gods  were  represented  by  shape- 
less stone.  Next  they  fashioned  their  Gods  in  the 
likeness  of  men.  This  gave  rise  to  the  colossal 
type.  In  religious  sculpture  was  found  the  whole 
range  of  Greek  mythology.     Sculpture  in  high  re- 

*The  Italian  Greeks  worked  in  Carrara  marble.  Besides  all 
of  these  quarries  many  of  the  islands  around  the  mainland  of 
Greece  were  rich  in  brilliantly  grained  marbles. 


204  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

lief  was  used  on  friezes  and  pediments  as  external 
decorations  of  the  temples.  The  frieze  work  gen- 
erally represented  continuous  subjects  like  proces- 
sions, assemblies,  and  battle  scenes.  The  Parthenon 
frieze  is  a  fine  example  of  this. 

In  the  monuments  of  a  civic  character  the  Greek 
displayed  more  or  less  symbolism.  One  constant 
example  is  the  use  of  Athena  to  represent  Athens, 
a  woman  to  indicate  the  senate,  and  a  man  to  por- 
tray the  people.  In  later  Greek  work,  official  busts 
on  pillars  or  columns  was  a  favorite  form  of  civic 
sculpture. 

The  sculpture  inspired  by  the  "National  Games" 
is  both  religious  and  civic  and  sometimes,  though  in- 
congruously, is  classed  as  sepulchral.  After  the 
Alexandrian  Age,  portraiture  in  sculpture  became 
excellent  and  of  universal  interest.  Domestic  sculp- 
ture referred  to  the  work  which  adorned  the  home, 
as  pottery,  wood-carving,  bronzes,  and  gems.  The 
toilet  outfit  received  attention,  carved  tables,  vases, 
lamps,  mirror-cases,  and  so  forth.  Personal  adorn- 
ment also  had  its  share  in  the  coronals,  necklaces, 
bracelets,  and  gems.  The  terra-cotta  figurines  are 
the  connecting  link  between  domestic  and  sepulchral 
sculpture.     As  votive  offerings,  these  small  clay  fig- 


SCULPTURE  205 

ures  evidence  the  life  and  character  of  the  Greeks. 
Sometimes  also  they  were  copies  of  famous  statues. 
Sepulchral  sculpture,  or  memorials  to  the  dead,  is 
variously  expressed  in  temples,  in  rock  cut  chapels, 
and  again  in  sculptured  facades  or  stelae  (slabs), 
decorated  perhaps  with  an  anthemion  or  inscription. 

In  so  brief  a  survey  of  Greek  sculpture  it  is  per- 
haps best  to  remember  the  names  of  six  men.  Ar- 
ranged in  pairs  they  are  as  follows :  Myron  and  Phi- 
dias, Polyclitus  and  Praxiteles,  Scopas  and  Lysip- 
pus.  These  are  the  greatest  artists  in  Greek  sculp- 
ture, and  they  cover  a  span  of  only  200  years  from 
the  fifth  to  the  third  century  B.  C.  During  that 
brief  period,  their  quest  for  the  "Good,  the  True  and 
the  Beautiful"  found  that  every  block  of  marble 
was  a  beautiful  possibility. 

The  excellence  to  which  these  men  attained  was 
the  result  of  a  long  past  beginning  in  the  Archaic 
Period.  The  best  example  of  Archaic  sculpture 
is  the  Lion  Gate  at  Mycenae.  This  was  executed 
somewhere  between  1500  and  1000  B.  C.  Several 
centuries  later  we  find  Greek  sculpture  grouping  itself 
around  three  schools,  the  Archaic,  Doric,  the  Arch- 
aic Ionic  and  the  Archaic  Attican.  Finallv,  the 
last  two  lose  themselves  in  the  Attican  School,  of 
which  Myron  and  Phidias  are  both  products. 


206  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

Myron  worked  on  the  principle  that  a  statue  must 
always  have  unity  and  concentration.  He  is  known 
through  his  "Discus-thrower"  and  Phidias  by  his 
frieze  on  the  Parthenon.  Phidias  was  so  great  in 
his  art  that  he  gave  his  name  to  the  age.  Both  of 
these  men  excelled  in  religious  sculpture,  but  My- 
ron's skill  with  the  statues  of  the  athletes  was  paral- 
leled by  Phidias'  ability  to  fashion  the  gods  and  the 
goddesses.  So  beautiful  are  his  achievements  that 
he  is  said  to  have  snatched  the  veil  from  Olympus 
and  looked  upon  the  celestials  face  to  face. 

TTie  Attican  School  also  produces  the  next  man, 
Polyclitus,  who  investigated  the  art  of  Phidias  and 
Myron,  and  taught  the  artists  who  followed  the 
method  of  their  work.  He  produced  the  "Canon 
of  Sculpture",  an  aid  to  men  with  an  interest  equal- 
ling his,  but  who  had  less  skill.  Polyclitus'  name  is 
always  associated  with  the  statue  of  the  "Athlete 
dropping  Oil."  The  Attican  School  now  adds  to 
itself  the  school  of  Argos,  and  becomes  the  "Atti- 
can Argos."  This  compound  school  now  produces 
the  next  three  men,  Praxiteles,  Scopas,  and  Lysip- 
pus.  Praxiteles  is  known  as  the  sculptor  with  the 
song  in  his  heart.  He  has  won  undying  fame  by 
his  "Hermes  with  the  Infant  Bacchus  on  his  Arm", 


SCULPTURE  207 

considered  the  most  beautiful  statue  of  antiquity; 
also  by  the  "Lizard-Catcher."  Hawthorne's 
**Marble  Faun"  has  done  much  to  make  the  faun 
statue  of  his  famous.  His  work  was  mostly  in 
bronze. 

Scopas  was  a  man  of  feeling,  one  who  reflected 
the  hopeless  agony  of  the  times.  He  was  the  sculp- 
tor with  the  stormy  heart.  In  all  probability  the 
famous  Niobe  group  was  executed  by  him.  Un- 
like Praxiteles,  Scopas  worked  wholly  in  marble. 
The  last-named  is  Lysippus,  the  fair-minded,  even- 
tempered  sculptor  who  copied  the  virtues  of  his  pred- 
ecessors and  forgot  their  vices.  He  is  famous  for 
his  figure  cleaning  off  the  dust  of  the  Arena.  Lysip- 
pus worked  in  both  marble  and  bronze  and  seemed  to 
combine  within  himself  all  the  excellencies  of  his  five 
immediate  forerunners. 

All  six  men  found  the  highest  expression  of  their 
art  in  simplicity.  They  made  the  discovery  which 
the  world  has  been  slow  to  accept,  that  simplicity  is 
another  name  for  perfection. 

Three  schools  developed  successively  after  Argos 
and  Attica.  They  were,  first,  the  Rhodian  School, 
in  which  group-work  was  developed.  To  this  be- 
long the  Laocoon  and  the  Farnese  Bull.     A  note  of 


208  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

hopeless  agony  prevails  in  their  work.  To  the 
School  of  Pergamus  which  followed  belongs  the 
Apollo  Belvedere,  which  many  claim  rivals  the  Her- 
mes of  Praxiteles  in  the  perfection  of  the  male  form. 
Also  the  "Wrestlers**  belong  to  this  school,  of  its 
kind  the  most  noted  statue  ever  chiseled,  and  the 
"Boy  with  the  Goose,**  a  fine  example  of  the  later 
genre  work  in  sculpture. 

Last  of  all  was  the  Roman  School,  which  came 
into  power  when  Rome  took  Greece  captive  and  as- 
similated her  act.  Moreover,  the  Greek  colonists 
in  southern  Italy  had  been  preparing  the  country  for 
an  art  heritage.  Rome  was  a  faithful  conservator, 
and,  although  Italy  did  not  take  first  place  in  sculp- 
ture as  she  did  in  painting,  nevertheless,  her  artists 
had  a  worthy  plastic  sense.  The  Romans  looked 
upon  plastic  art  as  fit  only  for  slaves.  The  utility 
side  of  sculpture,  namely  the  decorative  feature, 
alone  appealed  to  them.  In  Rome's  best  days  she 
copied  only.  Creation  in  the  realm  of  plasticity 
was  denied  to  her.  She  came  the  nearest  to  it  in 
the  worship  of  her  heroes.  Her  highest  expression 
is  found,  therefore,  on  her  triumphal  arches  and  col- 
umns, because  she  records  in  marble  the  exploits  of 
her  generals.     In  this  way  Rome  made  two  large 


SCULPTURE  209 

contributions  to  sculpture.  First,  she  brought  to  the 
highest  mark  heroic  or  natural  portraiture.  The 
statue  of  Augustus  Caesar  in  the  Vatican  is  by  far 
the  most  realistic  and  perfect  work  of  its  kind  in 
existence.  This  skill  in  portrait  sculpture  brought 
about  the  fashion  of  ancestral  statuary  with  which  the 
Roman  gentry  filled  their  homes.  In  the 
shops,  ready-made  statues  could  be  secured 
with  heads  carved  to  order.  Rome's  sec- 
ond contribution  was  a  remarkable  skill  in 
national  monumental  works,  of  which  the  column 
of  Trajan  and  the  arches  of  Titus  and  of  Constan- 
tine  are  examples.  The  bas-reliefs  upon  these 
arches  and  columns  commemorated  the  deeds  of  the 
hero  and  are  the  best  of  the  kind  ever  executed. 
Even  with  them  for  a  pattern,  modern  sculpture 
has  never  excelled  the  artists  of  Rome  in  these  two 
particulars. 

All  the  Caesars  except  Nero  and  Caligula  were 
art  patrons.  Augustus  reigned  from  31  B.  C.  to 
14  A.  D.  During  his  reign  and  some  fifty  years 
after,  Roman  sculpture  was  at  its  highest.  After 
98  A.  D.  plastic  art  began  to  decline.  Hadrian, 
the  great  art  collector,  stayed  the  decadence  and  ac- 
complished  a  temporary   revival.     After   Hadrian 


2 1 0  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

up  to  the  time  of  Constantine,  it  was  the  fashion  in 
Roman  sculpture  to  reproduce  the  masterpieces  of 
the  Greeks.  It  was  a  time  of  great  wealth  and  lux- 
ury, and  the  Roman  gentry  filled  their  palaces  with 
beautiful  copies  of  the  Greek  Venuses  and  Apollos. 
It  is  to  this  fashion  that  we  owe  the  many  excellent 
reproductions  of  the  great  statues  which  now  enrich 
the  galleries  of  Europe  and  America. 

During  the  latter  days  of  Roman  sculpture,  the 
art  was  practised  by  guilds  with  but  little  independ- 
ence. Byzantium,  the  seat  of  the  Eastern  Roman 
Empire,  was  a  part  of  the  Orient,  and  sometime  be- 
fore the  fall  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire  had 
thrown  off  Roman  characteristics  in  her  sculpture  and 
had  been  modified  by  Greek  influence.  Moreover 
the  allegory  which  had  appealed  to  Rome  was  sup- 
planted by  symbolism  in  Byzantium. 

Of  the  fine  arts,  architecture  had  the  largest 
growth  during  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  Era. 
Next  came  painting,  because  sculpture  was  used 
neither  to  produce  a  place  of  worship  nor  as  a  vehicle 
for  teaching.  Therefore  from  the  third  to  the 
sixth  centuries,  it  is  known  as  Early  Christian  Sculp- 
ture. 


SCULPTURE  211 

In  the  fifth  century,  the  Barbarians  of  Europe 
destroyed  the  Roman  State,  and  in  return  were  con- 
verted to  the  Christian  rehgion.  During  the  next 
700  years,  the  Christian  church  gathered  into  her 
fold  all  of  these  people,  and,  during  the  process  of 
Christianizing  Europe,  the  present  modern  states 
took  form.  The  institutions  of  the  Papacy,  of  Mon- 
asticism,  of  Feudalism,  and  of  Chivalry  were  excel- 
lent agents  of  education  and  of  religion,  and  led 
the  people  out  of  darkness  into  moral  and  social 
responsibility. 

Finally,  moved  by  a  common  religious  sentiment,* 
the  people  united  in  the  first  great  national  move- 
ment, the  Crusades.  The  Crusades  were  the  her- 
ald of  modern  civilization  for  they  introduced  the 
barbarian  North  to  the  cultured  South. 

Culture  is  dynamic  and  very  soon  found  expres- 
sion in  architecture,  in  painting  and  in  sculpture. 

During  the  Age  of  Revival  from  the  eleventh  to 
the  fifteenth  century,  sculpture  as  an  adjunct  to  arch- 
itecture was  practiced  throughout  Europe.  During 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  the  period  of 
the  Renaissance  in  Italy  and  of  the  Reformation  in 
Northern  Europe,  sculpture  became  again  an  inde- 

*Religion  is  a  great  unifier. 


in  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

pendent  expression  of  the  people,  in  funerary  or  in 
monumental  work,  and  in  decorations  in  the  cathe- 
drals, like  altar  fronts,  choir  screens,  and  pulpits. 
Lastly,  during  this  period  sculpture  came  to  take  on 
an  heroic  national  character. 

Now,  again,  the  history  of  this  subject  becomes 
a  chronicle  of  great  men.  Donatello,  a  Florentine, 
was  the  first  master  of  equestrian  art ;  the  della  Rob- 
bia  family  became  expert  in  work  with  glazed  terra 
cotta ;  and  Ghiberti  was  the  herald  in  bronze.  Next, 
Verrocchio  rivals  Donatello,  and  John  of  Bologna 
and  Bernini  contest  the  laurels  with  Ghiberti. 

Just  here  the  art  world  past  and  present  bows 
down  before  Michael  Angelo,  1475-1564,  the  giant 
in  sculpture.  He  was  a  Tuscan  by  birth,  who  came 
from  the  ranks  of  the  people  and  one  who,  through 
discipline  of  poverty  and  of  effort,  rose  to  first  emi- 
nence as  a  sculptor.  Michael  Angelo  was  deeply 
emotioned.  With  him  truth  was  a  passion.  The 
conventional  classicism  of  his  contemporaries  failed 
to  meet  his  ideal,  so  he  cast  it  off  and  produced  a 
character  of  work  all  his  own.  Someone  has  said  that 
his  works  are  a  monument  to  the  trinity  of  the  artist, 
his  great  heart,  his  great  mind,  and  his  great  genius. 
His  "David",  his  "Moses,"  his  "Pieta,"  and  his 


SCULPTURE  213 

"Tombs  of  the  Medici"  stand  for  all  time  as  the 
masterpieces  of  a  master  mind.  In  fact,  plastic 
work  has  never  lost  the  truth  of  Michael  Angelo, 
for,  because  the  artists  were  unable  to  compete  with 
him  in  stone,  they  perfected  the  technique  in  bronze. 
Also  the  invention  of  gunpowder  had  made  the 
feudal  castles  passe  and  had  changed  them  into  ca- 
sinos and  pleasure  gardens.  This  added  an  entirely 
new  decorative  motive  to  sculpture.  The  decora- 
tion of  exteriors  and  of  facades  was  enlarged  into 
decorative  statues  in  the  round.  France  carried 
this  decorative  motive  to  the  extreme,  but  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands  were  more  temperate  in  their 
use.  Germany  at  this  time  contributed  the  decora- 
tive fountain-sculpture,  and  the  Netherlands  formal- 
ly kept  the  Italian  simplicity  to  which  she  had  at  first 
fallen  heir. 

Spain  and  England,  the  former  through  the  domi- 
nation of  the  church  and  the  latter  through  the  Tud- 
ors,  especially  Elizabeth,  became  patrons  of  sculp- 
ture. 

Peter  Vischer  and  Schadow  in  Germany,  Thor- 
waldsen,  the  Dane,  Rauch  and  Begas  in  Germany, 
Claudet  and  Barye  in  France,  Bernini  and  Canova 
in  Italy,  Nicholas  Stone  and  John  Flaxman  in  Eng- 


2 1 4  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

land,  bring  us  down  to  Gibson  and  to  modern  times. 

Of  the  present  day  sculpture  we  must  speak  very 
briefly.  Rodin  is  the  great  European  figure.  His 
studio  in  Paris  is  the  inspiration  of  all  modern  sculp- 
tors. 

With  England's  entrance  into  sculpture,  America 
established  a  claim  upon  plastic  art.  From  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighteenth  century  to  1 850,  we  made  large 
beginnings.  These  were  the  days  of  William  Rush 
and  of  John  Frazee,  who  excelled  in  making  busts 
in  the  department  of  portraiture.  To  them  we  are 
indebted  for  the  likenesses  in  marble  of  our  early 
statesmen  and  soldiers.  In  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  Horatio  Greenough  built  his  gigantic 
statue  of  Washington,  which  is  now  in  Washington. 
He  was  followed  by  Hiram  Powers,  who  left  he- 
roic portraiture,  in  which  he  attained  skill,  for  ideal 
historical  subjects,  for  example,  his  "Greek  Slave" 
in  the  Corcoran  Gallery  at  Washington.  In  beauty 
and  in  purity,  critics  say,  this  statue  rivals  many  of 
the  Greek  Venuses.  Powers  had  a  noted  contem- 
porary, Thomas  Crawford,  father  of  the  novelist. 
He  left  fact  for  fancy,  as  is  shown  by  his  "Orpheus" 
in  the  Boston  museum.*        Palmer,   Bull,  Story, 

*Orpheus  witK  his  lyre  is  shading  his  eyes.  Beside  him  is 
his  double-headed  dog. 


SCULPTURE  215 

Rinehart,  and  Rogers,  together  with  many  others, 
widened  the  sphere  of  subjects  and  raised  the  gen- 
eral standards  of  sculpture  during  the  last  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  However,  it  fell  to  Miss 
Harriet  Hosmer,  1830  of  Massachusetts,  friend  of 
Charlotte  Cushman  and  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne, 
to  bring  classicism  into  American  art.  Her  "Bea- 
trice Cenci,**  now  in  St.  Louis,  one  of  her  earliest 
achievements,  and  "Zenobia,**  one  of  her  latest,  now 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York  City,  show 
the  classic  realism  found  in  all  her  work.  She  ex- 
celled in  portraiture  as  well,  and  her  statues  of 
Abraham  Lincoln,  and  of  the  Queen  of  Naples, 
and  of  Queen  Isabella  prove  this.  The  Misses 
Margaret  Foley,  Emma  Stebbins,  and  Blanche 
Nevin  are  three  of  a  group  of  women  who  became 
famous  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

After  the  civil  war,  John  Quincy  Adams  Ward 
was  a  prominent  figure  among  the  sculptors.  Five 
of  his  best  known  statues  are  "Henry  Ward  Beech- 
er"  in  Brooklyn,  the  "Indian  Hunter"  in  Central 
Park,  New  York  City,  the  "Warrior"  at  Washing- 
ton,*' the  "Garfield"  in  the  grounds  of  the  Capitol, 
and  a  "General  Thomas,"  in  one  of  the  squares  of 

♦This  is  purely  decorative  in  purpose. 


2 1 6  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

the  capital  city.  Contemporaneous  with  Ward  is 
a  group  of  monument  builders.  One  is  Larkin  J. 
Mead,  who  made  the  statue  of  Ethan  Allen  in  the 
Hall  of  Fame.  Simmons,  Bissell,  and  Martin  Mil- 
more  at  this  time  are  noted  for  their  portraiture  and 
relief  work.  One  of  the  new  influences  in  sculpture 
in  the  last  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  came  from 
Olin  Levi  Warner.  He  is  called  a  sculptor  for 
sculptors,  and  was  remarkable  for  his  relief  work. 
A  good  example  of  this  is  his  "Imagination"  in 
Washington. 

We  come  now  to  the  three  greatest  names  in 
American  sculpture.  These  are  Augustus  Saint 
Gaudens,  the  genius  of  the  art  achievements  in  the 
White  City  at  Chicago,  1 903 ;  his  pupil,  Frederick 
MacMonnies,  and  Daniel  Chester  French.  The 
works  of  Saint  Gaudens  can  be  seen  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg, Paris,  and  in  many  American  cities.* 

MacMonnies  is  famous  for  his  fountain  at  the 
World*s  Fair,  Chicago,  and  for  his  Nathan  Hale 
in  New  York  City.  Daniel  Chester  French  is  al- 
most a  genre  sculptor.  In  Washington  he  has  a 
statue  of  Gallaudet  teaching  a  deaf  mute,  and  in 
Concord,  Massachusetts,  in  his  "Minute  Man."  The 

♦The  statue  of  Admiral  Farragut,  by  Saint  Gaudens  is  in  New- 
York,  and  the  Adams  Memorial  is  in  Washington. 


SCULPTURE  217 

work  of  George  Gray  Barnard,  especially  the 
**Hewer/*  suggests  the  athletic  statuary  of  the 
Greeks.  Then  there  are  the  sculptors  of  animals, 
one  of  whom,  Edwin  C.  Potter,  formed  the  "Fann 
Horse"  so  noted  at  the  Columbian  Exposition,  and 
Proctor,  the  sculptor  of  Indians  and  their  horses. 

Later  day  sculptors  are  Dallin,  Brooks,  Steward- 
son  and  Lorado  Taft,  besides  many  others. 

Nine-tenths  of  the  sculptors  are  gathered  in  New 
York.  Our  secondary  cities  have  one  or  more  of 
these  workers.  Sculptors  are  not  unlike  other  art- 
ists. They  are  generally  normal,  thinking  men,  alert 
to  their  surroundings  and  to  the  times  in  which  they 
live.  They  no  longer  work  in  stone,  the  hewing 
is  left  to  artisans  who  have  mastered  the  science  of 
measurements.  The  plastic  artist  now  works  whol- 
ly in  terra-cotta  modeling  the  soft  clay  into  perfec- 
tion, and  trusting  the  stone  cutting  to  ordinary  work- 
men who,  while  skillful,  lack  the  creative  genius  of 
the  master. 

As  an  art  interest,  modeling  is  not  nearly  as  broad 
as  painting,  and  it  remains  for  the  United  States  to 
develop  a  universal,  plastic  sense.  The  "great  trio" 
in  the  Fine  Arts  are  architecture,  painting  and  sculp- 
ture.    Although  sculpture  holds  third  place  in  the 


2 1 8  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

sequence,  it  is  no  less  vital  as  a  true  expression  of  the 
artistic  impulse  which  makes  all  men  akin  and  but 
**little  lower  than  the  angels.** 

Twelve  Famous  Examples  of  Sculpture. 

Venus  de  Milo 
Myron,  Discus-thrower 
Phidias,  Frieze  on  Parthenon 
Polyclitus, ^ Athlete  Dropping  Oil. 
Praxiteles,  Hermes  and  Infant  Bacchus 
Praxiteles,  Marble  Faun 
Scopas  (Niobe  Group) 
Lysippus,  Athlete  cleaning  off  Dust 
Rhodian  School,  Loacoon 
Pergamon  School,  Apollo  Belvidere 
Pergamon  School,  The  Wrestlers 
Roman  School,  Augustus  Caesar 


Chapter  VI 


Music. 

"  Unconquerable 
Up  from  beneath  his  hand  in  circling  flight 
The  gathering  music  rose — and  sweet  as  Love 
The  penetrating  notes  did  live  and  move 

"Within   the    heart   of   great   Apollo.     He 
Listened  with  all  his  soul  and  laughed  for  pleasure." 
—Homeric  Hymn  to  Hermes. 

Although  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of  music 
is  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  music  is  even  more 
universal  than  the  other  Fine  Arts.  As  it  is  com- 
mon to  all  people  in  every  period  of  time,  there  is 
great  variety  in  music  and  the  scope  of  the  subject 
is  a  broad  one.  Historians,  therefore,  divide  it  into 
two  great  periods,  namely.  Uncivilized  Music,  which 
covers  the  efforts  of  primitive  and  semi-civilized 
peoples,  and  Civilized  Music,  which  begins  with  the 
Greek  and  Roman  and  extends  through  mediaeval 
and  modern  music  up  to  the  present  time. 
^^    219 


220  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

The  first  group,  Uncivilized  Music,  includes  not 
only  the  musical  expression  of  ancient  peoples  like 
the  Egyptians  and  Hebrews,  but  also  the  work  of 
the  present  Chinese,  Hindus,  and  others  whose  sys- 
tem of  music  bears  no  relation  to  our  own.  The 
second  group.  Civilized  Music,  began  with  the  Greek 
and  Roman,  which  by  300  A.  D.  had  affected  all 
the  countries  adjacent  to  the  Mediterranean.  The 
next  period  was  Mediaeval  Music.  In  the  begin- 
ning up  to  the  twelfth  century  plain  song  and  ritual 
music  developed.  After  that  the  Troubadours  and 
Minnesingers  composed  sacred  and  secular  music. 
Then,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  came  the  Netherland 
counterpoint,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  trans- 
ition to  modern  composition. 

Modern  music  is  divided  according  to  centuries. 
In  the  seventeenth  century,  the  opera  was  composed 
and  also  independent  instrumental  music.  In  the 
eighteenth  century  the  composition  of  the  opera  was 
improved  and  sonatas  and  symphonies  appeared.  The 
nineteenth  century  is  the  great  period  of  musical  de- 
velopment. In  the  first  part  classical  methods  pre- 
vailed, then  came  a  time  of  romantic  enthusiasm,  and 
lastly  an  expansion  of  ideas  which  found  expression 
in  many  and  varied  forms. 


MUSIC  221 

In  entering  upon  a  discussion  of  music  the  first 
question  is  naturally  one  of  origin.  Many  sugges- 
tions are  found  in  nature,  in  the  rushing  of  the  wind, 
in  the  roaring  of  the  waves,  in  the  patter  of  the  rain 
drop,  in  the  songs  of  birds,  in  the  buzz  of  the  bees, 
and  in  the  calls  of  various  animals.  Again,  the  im- 
pulse to  make  rhythmic  sound  is  a  part  of  bodily 
vigor  and  of  good  feeling.  Earliest  records  show 
that  man  has  always  made  rude  instruments  with 
which  to  keep  time  and  to  play  melodies,  a  fact 
which  may  have  led  Herbert  Spencer  to  declare  that 
song  is  primarily  a  form  of  speech.  The  origin  of 
music  is,  therefore,  chiefly  a  matter  of  theory,  and 
has  little  to  do  with  the  exact  history  of  the  science. 

We  have  said  that  civilized  music  began  with 
Greece  and  Rome.  Greece  seized  upon  all  the 
Fine  Arts.  As  the  Greek  mind  was  inquiring  and 
constructive,  it  developed  music  into  a  technical  sci- 
ence. To  the  Greek,  music  was  closely  related  to 
poetry  and  to  general  culture.  In  this  broad  inter- 
pretation both  mediaeval  and  modern  music  had 
their  source.  The  history  of  Greek  music  and  of 
poetry  seems  to  be  identical,  both  were  inspired  by 
the  muses  and  the  poets  were  always  singers.  In 
other  words  poetry  was  always  delivered  with  a 


222  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

sort  of  musical  improvisation.  The  Greek  drama 
also  helped  the  interpretative  side  of  the  singer  and 
of  the  poet.  The  melodies  used  were  probably 
minors  with  an  unique  tonality  and  with  unusual 
intervals.  The  chief  advance  which  the  Greeks 
made  in  music  was  the  physical  analysis  of  tones, 
and  in  the  formal  definition  of  scales.  They  used 
letters  to  indicate  the  diatonic  scale  of  eight  tones 
and  the  chromatic  scale  which  proceeds  by  half- 
steps. 

In  the  second  century,  Greek  artists  were  scat- 
tered all  over  Italy  and  they  brought  with  them 
their  knowledge  of  music.  However,  as  luxury  in- 
creased, oriental  singers,  players,  and  dancers  were 
introduced.  As  these  entertainers  were  slaves,  they 
contributed  little  to  the  science  of  music.  However 
as  Rome  attracted  great  numbers  of  musicians,  she 
disseminated  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  musical 
styles.  The  period  of  Greek  and  Roman  music 
closes  entirely  by  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  Mediaeval  period  opens  with  the  rise  of 
Christian  music.  It  covers  the  time  from  the  third 
to  the  fourteenth  century,  but  little  is  known  of 
Christian  music  before  1 200  A.  D.  No  doubt  this 
was  because  in  the  Dark  Ages  the  political  and  so- 
cial situation  was  so  involved. 


MUSIC  223 

The  early  Christians  sang  a  part  of  their  wor- 
ship. In  the  4th  century,  a  richness  and  statehness 
in  the  whole  ritual  of  music  was  accomplished.  In 
time,  church  song  was  systematized  into  the  Gregor- 
ian style,  but  the  words  were  in  Latin,  so  the  song 
meant  little  to  the  common  people.  Unfortunately, 
the  Gregorian  style  made  the  difference  between  the 
church  and  the  laity  more  apparent,  although  in 
itself  it  was  an  example  of  melodic  invention  and  of 
beauty. 

Up  to  the  twelfth  century  little  is  known  of  musical 
instruments,  possibly  because  in  the  early  centuries 
musical  instruments  were  never  used  in  connection 
with  church  music  because  of  their  association  with 
pagan  sensuality.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  used 
various  forms  of  the  lyre,  but  with  the  exception  of 
the  organ,  which  early  became  a  part  of  the  church 
equipment,  there  was  little  of  invention  and  of  im- 
provement along  these  lines. 

About  1 200  A.  D.  the  art  of  music  is  very  vitally 
interwoven  with  all  progress  and  is  a  part  of  the 
general  intellectual  awakening  in  Europe  which  re- 
sulted in  the  Renaissance.  During  this  period  large 
cathedrals  were  built,  and  naturally  the  ritual  be- 
came long  and  ornate.  At  this  time  it  was  seen 
that  music  might  have  a  beauty  and  meaning  apart 


224  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

from  words,  and  that  it  might  be  a  fabric  of  tones 
made  by  interweaving  voice  parts.  This  was  an 
advance  on  the  Gregorian  style.  In  time  melodies 
were  reduced  to  regular  rythmic  forms  and  were 
then  combined  in  different  ways.  The  rythmic  ar- 
rangement of  melodies  gave  rise  to  a  theory  of  time, 
and  the  combining  of  melodies  produced  a  theory 
of  counterpoint.  Therefore  these  two  discoveries 
resulted  in  Time  and  Notation. 

While  the  church  was  dealing  with  these  larger 
ideas  in  polyphony,  the  popular  spirit  began  to  find 
an  outlet  in  music,  and  the  result  was  the  secular 
song.  In  the  twelfth  century  in  France,  this  new 
impulse  found  expression  in  the  poet  singers  called 
Troubadours.*  These  singers  reflected  the  spirit 
of  chivalry,  for  their  theme  was  love  and  the  ideals 
of  knighthood.  Their  music  exalted  woman  and 
found  a  literary  expression  for  intense  feeling.  As 
a  musical  impulse  attended  their  verse-making,  they 
popularized  secular  music.  They  also  increased  the 
use  of  the  harp,  the  lute,  and  the  viol. 

The  Troubadours  of  France  came  for  the  most 
part  from  the  high  wealthy  class.  The  Minnesing- 
ers, who  paralleled  them  in  Germany,  came  from 


♦The  word  Troubadour  means  finder  or  inventor  of  words. 


MUSIC  225 

the  middle  wealthy  class.  They  expanded  the  ex- 
pression of  the  mediaeval  adoration  of  the  Virgin, 
and  in  this  way  differed  from  the  Troubadours.  The 
Minnesingers  were  followed  by  the  Meistersingers 
who  sprang  from  the  tradesman  in  Germany.  These 
Meistersingers  were  musical  societies  whose  work 
was  based  upon  certain  technical  knowledge  and  tra- 
ditions. Such  clubs  made  music  a  dignified  and 
worthy  pursuit. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  a  new  art  center  arose  in 
the  Netherlands.  Here  we  notice  for  the  first  time 
several  composers  of  music.  These  men  had 
spanned  the  interval  in  secular  music  between  the 
solo-minstrel  song  and  the  polyphonic  mass  or  chorus, 
and  had  made  it  over  into  sacred  or  church  music. 
In  their  compositions  is  found  an  entirely  new  musical 
quality.  During  this  century  these  composers  are 
differentiated  into  three  separate  groups  of  masters. 
These  groups  worked  out  several  important  problems. 
The  first  men  interwove  independent  voice-parts 
about  one  basic  melody.  The  second  company 
made  great  progress  in  composition,  and  the  third 
group  of  masters  made  beauty  and  sentiment  their 
definite  aim.  As  a  result  of  these  three  schools, 
music  as  an  art  began  to  take  rank  with  painting  and 
sculpture. 


226  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

Side  by  side  with  this  growth  of  sacred  music  in 
the  Netherlands,  in  melody  and  in  counterpoint, 
grew  the  popular  or  secular  folk  music,  whose  pro- 
duction was  simple,  unconscious,  and  unstudied. 
With  the  folk  music  came  the  itinerant  minstrels,  an 
organized  band  of  persons  who  made  their  living 
by  singing.  This  class  stimulated  the  invention  and 
the  use  of  instruments  for  which  they  provided  nota- 
tions called  tablatures. 

The  sixteenth  century  is  the  meeting-place  of  Me- 
diaeval and  Modern  history.  Early  in  this  century 
occurs  the  invention  of  music-printing,  a  system  of 
movable  types  for  notes.  At  this  time  Italian  music 
is  first  known.  Venice  was  a  musical  center  in 
which  great  progress  was  made  in  composition,  and 
at  Rome  in  the  Papal  Chapel*,  sacred  polyphony 
attained  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection. 

Throughout  this  century  also  music  developed  in 
northern  and  in  western  Europe,  especially  through 
the  agency  of  the  Reformation.  This  began  in 
Saxony  under  the  leadership  of  Martin  Luther,  an 
educated  Augustinian  monk.  He  led  a  revolution 
against  abuses  in  the  papal  system,  which  swept  over 
Germany  and  won  the  support  of  all  classes.     To 

*An  institution  reaching  back  to  the  singers*  schools  of  the 
early  popes. 


MUSIC  227 

Luther  common  song  was  indispensable.  As  a  re- 
sult hymns  were  set  to  the  melodies  of  folk-songs, 
or  to  others  newly  written  in  a  similar  style.  These 
melodies  were  called  "chorales**  and  became  the 
nucleus  of  Protestant  church  music.  The  Reforma- 
tion spread  over  Europe  and  energized  music  in 
France,  in  Spain,  in  the  Netherlands,  and  in  Eng- 
land. During  this  century  also  the  Madrigal  or 
Part-Song  began.  This  is  a  light  and  gay  style 
of  part-writing.  There  were  many  other  achieve- 
ments in  the  musical  line,  but  it  is  sufficient  to  state 
that  this  century  witnessed  a  sudden  expansion  in 
the  work  of  music. 

From  1  700  to  1 800  the  musical  drama  developed. 
Dramatic  expression  was  early  found  among  the 
Greeks,  but  in  this  century  the  dramatic  impulse  first 
sought  expression  through  music,  a  science  which 
had  achieved  a  genuine  harmonic  idea  of  composi- 
tion. During  the  fifteenth  century,  music  had  been 
a  dramatic  accessory,  but  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury the  musical  drama  developed,  and  with  it  came 
the  opera,  a  source  of  musical  education  as  well  as 
of  public  amusement.  With  the  opera  house  came 
of  course  the  directors  and  performers. 


228  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

The  earliest  opera  was  given  in  Venice  and  it 
set  a  fashion  for  secular  musical  dramas  which  pre- 
vailed for  two  centuries.  In  other  parts  of  Italy 
the  sacred  musical  drama,  known  as  the  "Oratorio," 
developed  at  the  same  time.  In  France  the  next  ex- 
pansion of  musical  drama  occurred  in  the  production 
of  the  "Ballet."  The  music  was  of  dance  pattern 
with  its  emphasis  upon  actual  dancing.  In  Ger- 
many at  this  time  a  taste  for  both  part  songs  and 
solos  had  developed  through  the  growth  of  folk 
music.  The  dramatic  impulse  there  led  them  to 
construct  a  play  out  of  a  chain  of  vocal  numbers  and 
dialogues.  This  form  of  musical  composition,  more 
lyrical  than  dramatic,  became  known  as  the  German 
"Singspiel."  Together  with  the  "Singspiel"  the 
"German  Opera'*  developed.  In  England  dramatic 
composition  took  the  form  of  the  "Masque."  This 
was  a  series  of  private  theatricals  with  dancing,  decla- 
mation, scenic  effects,  considerable  singing,  and  the 
playing  of  many  instruments.  Passing  over  the  rise 
of  the  Neapolitan  Opera  and  the  progress  in  church 
music  at  Rome,  Venice,  Germany,  and  England,  we 
pause  with  the  Bach  family  of  Thuringia  who  in  the 
seventeenth  century  became  famous  as  musicians. 
No  family  of  artists  in  any  field  can  equal  their  in- 


MUSIC  229 

fluence  upon  the  musical  world.  Later,  in  the  eight- 
eenth century,  the  artists'  world  was  enriched  again 
by  the  career  of  John  Sebastian  Bach  and  his  talent- 
ed sons. 

With  this  remarkable  growth  in  musical  culture 
rose  the  importance  of  musical  instruments  and  the 
perfection  of  the  modern  keyboard.  The  organ  we 
have  found  was  one  of  the  earliest  instruments.  With 
its  use  and  improvement  came  an  advance  in  key- 
broad  technique  and  a  style  of  composition  peculiar 
to  the  organ.  At  the  same  time  violin  music  de- 
veloped and  popular  applications  of  musical  art  be- 
came general. 

A  question  naturally  arises  about  the  origin  of 
the  violin  and  of  the  piano.  In  mediaeval  days, 
the  "Troubadours'*  used  an  instrument  called  a 
"rebec."  From  this  a  "vielle"  or  fiddle  was  made. 
At  first  its  body  was  in  the  form  of  a  pear,  but  later 
it  was  shaped  at  the  waist.  In  the  fifteenth  century 
different  sizes  were  made  out  of  which  grew  the  big 
violin  for  the  bass  or  "bass  viol"  and  the  "small 
large"  size,  the  "violin  cello".  The  standard  size, 
then  as  now,  was  for  the  tenor  and  kept  the  name 
viola.*     Later  the  instrument  which  plays  the  first 

*The  Steam's  collection  of  instruments  at  Ann  Arbor. 


230  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

and  second  parts  came  to  be  called  the  violin.  At 
this  time  Northern  Italy,  Bavaria  and  the  Tyrol  won 
the  reputation  for  violin-making  which  they  enjoy 
to-day.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, violin  music  and  violin  playing  became  fully 
established.  One  hundred  years  later  occurred  the 
emancipation  of  the  orchestra,  an  event  which  made 
the  forms  of  instrumental  music  receive  a  great  deal 
of  attention.  As  a  result  of  the  development  of  the 
orchestra  and  of  instrumental  music,  the  "virtuoso," 
or  skilled  player,  appeared,  and  during  the  last  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century  continued  to  grow  in  num- 
bers and  in  power. 

History  tells  us  that  in  the  eighteenth  century 
Frederick  the  Great  was  a  flute-player  and  composer 
of  note  who  did  much  to  stimulate  such  playing. 
From  this  we  learn  that  the  use  of  other  instruments 
grew  with  the  violin's.  The  instrument  itself  has 
remained  the  same  through  the  centuries,  while  the 
piano  has  met  with  great  changes.  In  the  early 
nineteenth  century  Nicolo  Paganini  made  the  violin 
famous  for  all  time.  In  the  middle  of  the  same  cen- 
tury Moritz  Hauptmann's  was  a  great  name.  Since 
then  the  virtuosos  on  the  violin  are  numerous  and 
noted. 


MUSIC  231 

Up  to  the  last  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
piano  was  principally  a  curiosity.  In  Bavaria  and 
in  France,  about  1800,  better  devices  made  this  in- 
strument adequate.  Later  England  improved  the 
stringing,  the  hammers,  and  the  sounding  board,  and 
Austria  made  still  further  improvements.  As  a  re- 
sult, in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the 
"Vienna  pianists"  came  into  prominence.  The  nine- 
teenth century  witnessed  another  significant  advance 
in  pianos  and  in  pianism.  Beethoven,  Weber,  and 
Schubert  became  famous  and  they  have  been  fol- 
lowed ever  since  by  artists  of  world  fame. 

As  has  been  stated  the  early  eighteenth  century 
was  made  notable  by  John  Sebastian  Bach.  By 
hard  study  he  came  to  know  the  literature  of  Ger- 
man music,  especially  that  which  is  written  for  the 
organ  and  the  choir.  Next  he  mastered  the  musical 
styles  of  Italy  and  France,  at  the  same  time  training 
many  strong  pupils  and  writing  many  wonderful 
compositions.  In  all,  these  number  about  300  church 
cantatas,  while  his  oratorios  and  masses*  number 
fifteen  more.**  His  festival  oratorios  are  cantatas 
in  an  expanded  form  and  he  has  written  a  Passion 
for  each  of  the  four  Gospels.     Bach  understood 

*Bach*8  masses  are  allied  to  his  oratorios. 
**Only  certain  words  can  be  used  in  masses. 


232  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

how  to  make  formal  structure  express  the  soul.  Later 
generations  class  him  with  Michael  Angelo,  Shakes- 
peare, and  Goethe. 

The  next  great  name  in  music  is  George  Frederick 
Handel,  1685-1759.  His  father  wished  him  to  be 
a  lawyer,  but  the  son's  musical  talent  made  itself 
felt  in  very  early  years  and  be  began  the  study  of 
music.  In  Halle,  where  he  was  a  student  in  the 
University,  he  became  organist  in  the  church  and 
second  violinist  in  the  Kaiser's  orchestra.  In  con- 
nection with  this  he  wrote  several  operas  which  won 
immediate  success.  Later,  as  joint  director  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  he  wrote  fourteen  more 
operas.*  When  he  was  over  fifty  years  old  he  gave 
up  operas  and  turned  his  attention  to  oratorios.  He 
now  produced  fifteen  works  in  dramatic  form. 
Among  these  was  the  Messiah,  which  was  produced 
in  London.  Handel's  power  as  a  composer,  con- 
ductor and  organist  was  universally  acknowledged. 
He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey  with  great 
honor.  Handel  was  a  tireless  worker,  very  resource- 
ful and  inventive,  and  his  religious  works  show  earn- 
est conviction  and  deep  feeling. 


*Bach,  Handel  and  Hadyn  all  conducted  Singing  Schools. 


MUSIC  233 

Both  method  and  form  of  musical  composition 
attracted  attention  in  the  eighteenth  century.  In  all 
large  works,  the  whole  was  divided  into  movements 
and  the  general  effect  was  one  of  orderly  variety  or 
contrast.  One  of  the  favorite  forms  of  composition 
was  the  "Suite."  This  was  a  series  of  dance  tunes 
with  an  outward  character  of  regularity.  Bach 
wrote  twenty-nine  books  of  suites  and  Handel  wrote 
four  books.  The  fugue  developed  together  with  the 
suite  as  a  separate  form  of  composition.  It  does 
not  consist  of  distinct  movements,  although  it  gener- 
ally has  a  prelude.  The  fugue  has  a  theme  which 
is  developed  by  several  voice  parts  with  much  free- 
dom of  key.  Then  there  is  a  recapitulation  of  the 
theme  frequently  in  reverse  order  by  all  the  voices. 
All  the  great  composers  of  the  time  wrote  fugues. 
With  the  fugue  were  developed  the  "Overture,"  the 
"Sonata"  and  the  "Concerto."  All  three  had  orig- 
inally three  or  more  movements.  The  first,  the  over- 
ture, is  properly  an  introduction  to  a  dramatic  work. 
The  sonata  is  characterized  by  the  order  of  the 
movements,  namely,  slow,  quick,  slow,  quick,  if 
there  were  four  movements,  or  quick,  slow,  quick,  if 
there  were  only  three.     Originally  the  concerto  was 


234  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

not  so  very  different  from  the  sonata.  In  it  a  solo 
instrument  plays  successive  contrasts  with  a  concert- 
ed accompaniment. 

In  the  last  half  of  the  century  Joseph  Haydn, 
1732-1809,  was  a  prominent  musician.  He  began 
the  study  of  music  early  and  became  noted  as  a  con- 
ductor and  a  composer.  When  he  was  sixty-eight, 
he  gave  the  first  rendition  of  his  "Creation**  at 
Vienna.*  After  this  he  wrote  "The  Seasons.** 
Haydn  was  manly  and  religious  and  looked  upon 
his  musical  talent  as  a  divine  gift.  With  Haydn 
the  classical  sonata  and  symphony  developed  and 
the  orchestra  was  perfected.  Wolfgang  Mozart, 
who  died  in  1711,  was  a  symphonist  who  exalted 
melody.  He  excelled  in  instrumental  effects  especi- 
ally with  the  wind  groups.  He  wrote  a  great  deal 
of  music  for  the  orchestra,  in  which  are  42  sym- 
phonies. 

The  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  rich 
in  composers.  The  greatest  of  these  was  Christoph 
Willibald  Gliick,  1714-1  787.  Gliick  was  an  orig- 
inal composer  who  achieved  work  of  which  in  his 
early  days  he  did  not  dream.  Gliick  had  a  good 
voice  and  could  also  play  the  violin,  the  cello,  the 

*The  words  of  the  "Creation"  are  from  the  Bible  and  from 
Milton. 


MUSIC  235 

piano  and  organ.  His  two  greatest  works  are  the 
operas  "Iphigenie  en  Aulide"  and  "Iphigenie  en 
Taurideo,"  but  he  wrote  a  great  many  others.  In 
the  last  part  of  this  century  sacred  music  had  a  large 
growth  and  much  attention  was  paid  to  the  piano. 

The  nineteenth  century  is  grouped  successively 
about  the  work  of  Beethoven,  Mendelssohn  and 
Wagner.  In  the  early  part,  Ludwig  von  Beethoven 
lived  and  wrought.  He  was  one  of  the  three  su- 
preme musical  geniuses,  the  other  two  being  Haydn 
and  Mozart.  By  many  he  is  called  the  greatest 
of  the  three.  From  his  youth  he  was  progressive 
and  became  a  leader,  an  idealist,  and  a  creator. 
Beethoven  was  the  founder  of  a  new  order  and  his 
music  was  the  message  of  his  life.  As  a  composer 
he  had  a  remarkable  command  of  structure  and  of 
technique.  He  kept  a  note-book  in  which  he  record- 
ed and  expanded  his  musical  ideas.  Beethoven 
was  of  low  origin,  his  manners  were  uncouth,  and  he 
was  very  moody.  At  twenty-two  years  of  age  he 
was  stone  deaf.  He  never  married  principally  on 
account  of  his  infirmity.  Out  of  life-long  suffering 
were  born  his  great  works.  Beehoven's  prevailing 
method  was  the  sonata.  He  used  many  key-con- 
trasts and  much  modulation.     He  was  free  from 


236  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

conventionalities  of  any  kind.  His  melody  was 
very  strong,  but  entirely  different  from  Mozart's. 
Although  he  lived  at  a  time  when  music  was  chiefly 
a  refined  amusement  for  the  privileged  class,  his  pur- 
pose in  music  was  very  serious.  He  wrote  33  son- 
atas for  the  piano  and  over  1 00  smaller  pieces. 

In  romantic  opera  and  song,  the  pianist,  Carl 
Maria  von  Weber,  paralleled  the  career  of  Bee- 
thoven. He  became  expert  on  the  keyboard  and 
made  large  contributions  to  piano  literature.  As  he 
was  of  noble  birth  he  raised  the  standard  of  musi- 
cianship. Although  Weber  was  not  the  founder  of 
the  Romantic  Opera*  he  did  much  to  bring  it  to  a 
full  rounded  expression.  Weber  wrote  over  100 
songs,  2  masses,  7  operas,  and  many  detached  dra- 
matic pieces. 

Contemporaneous  with  Weber  was  Franz  Schu- 
bert who  died  when  only  thirty-one.  He  came  from 
poor  people  and  lived  a  very  sad  life.  He  had  a 
beautiful  voice,  played  first  violin  in  an  orchestra, 
and  was  a  composer  of  note.  His  works  are  all 
dominated  by  the  song  idea.  He  wrote  about  650  solo 
songs,  6  masses,   18  dramatic  works,  24  piano  so- 


*Romantic  Opera  is  a  drama  of  human  life. 


MUSIC  237 

natas,  20  string  quartets,  and  1 0  symphonies,  besides 
a  great  many  others.  His  songs  are  a  great  stimu- 
lus to  other  composers. 

The  ItaHan  Opera  with  highly-colored  and  showy 
melodies  developed  at  this  time  as  did  also  the 
French  Opera  Comique.  Connected  with  this 
growth  are  such  men  as  Rossini,  the  Italian,  and 
Meyerbeer,  the  wealthy  and  cultured  Jewish  com- 
posers. At  this  time  there  was  a  great  deal  of  in- 
strumental virtuosity.  One  of  the  great  violinists 
was  Nicolo  Paganini  already  mentioned  who  died 
in  1840.  There  was  also  great  improvement  in 
instrument  making,  and  the  composers  of  church  and 
organ  music  were  many  and  excellent.  During  this 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was  also 
vigorous  growth  in  musical  literature. 

The  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  brings  us 
Robert  Schumann.  In  1 843  he  became  one  of  the 
original  faculty  of  the  Leipsic  Conservatory  which 
was  organized  by  Mendelssohn.  The  following 
year  he  moved  to  Dresden  and  became  an  intimate 
friend  of  Wagner.  As  a  man  Schumann  was  sin- 
cere and  kindly.  As  a  writer,  his  works  have  an 
element  of  strenuousness,  which  his  critics  call  a 
modern  note.     Schumann's  compositions  cover  every 


238  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

class  except  church  music.  Among  them  were  near- 
ly 250  songs.  They  are  versatile,  eager,  and  full 
of  vitality.  Critics  say  that  they  materially  widen- 
ed the  range  of  musical  utterance. 

Contemporaneous  with  him  was  Felix  Mendels- 
sohn Bartholdy  to  whom  we  have  already  referred. 
He  belonged  to  a  Jewish  family  who  became  Chris- 
tians. Mendelssohn  was  one  of  four  children  to 
each  of  whom  were  given  liberal  advantages.  This 
artist  was  so  industrious  that  he  early  became  a 
finished  master  of  technique,  of  composition,  and  of 
performance.  Throughout  his  life  he  was  a  teach- 
er, a  conductor,  and  a  composer  of  note  in  Berlin 
and  in  Leipsic.  Mendelssohn  was  charming  per- 
sonally and  many-sided  in  his  interests.  His  activ- 
ity was  incessant  and  varied  as  a  pianist,  a  conductor, 
and  a  composer.  His  work  covered  nearly  every 
form  of  composition. 

The  next  great  pianist  was  Chopin,  a  tone-poet 
who  threw  new  light  upon  pianism.  He  was  a  lyric 
artist,  choosing  forms  that  were  like  songs.  He  had 
an  unusual  appreciation  of  the  capacities  of  the  piano 
and  a  rare  talent  for  decoration  and  color.  Frederic 
Chopin,  1810-1849,  was  of  Polish  extraction  and 
his  early  years  were  darkened  by  the  troubles  of 


MUSIC  239 

Poland.  He  received  a  fair  education  but  soon 
concentrated  upon  music.  He  was  a  poor  interpret- 
er of  other  persons'  music  but  he  knew  how  to  play 
his  own  compositions  to  perfection.  However  he 
was  not  strong  enough  in  mind  or  in  body  to  become 
a  great  leader.  He  died  in  his  thirty-ninth  year, 
having  contributed  to  pianism  a  large  number  of  del- 
icate embellishments  and  refinements.  His  works 
are  almost  wholly  for  the  piano  and  in  dance  or  in 
song  forms.  There  are  50  muzurkas,  15  waltzes, 
4  scherzos,  3  sonatas,  4  ballads  and  many  others. 

Liszt  was  contemporaneous  with  Chopin  only  his 
life  was  a  long  one.  Franz  Liszt,  181 1-1886,  was 
from  Hungary.  He  early  showed  marked  musical 
ability.  Later  his  remarkable  technique,  his  excellent 
interpretations  and  improvisations,  and  his  rare  mag- 
netism placed  him  first  among  a  growing  circle  of 
pianists.  The  most  of  his  time  was  occupied  with  ex- 
tended concert  tours.  He  was  very  generous  with 
his  money  and  subscribed  $10,000  to  the  Beethoven 
monument  at  Bonne.  Liszt  was  a  great  favorite  at 
Weimar.  His  piano  works  cover  many  and  varied 
transcriptions  and  arrangements  from  diverse  sources. 
He  also  wrote  rhapsodies  on  Hungarian  themes  and 
many  other  national  works.     Many  feel,  perhaps 


240  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

unjustly,  that  Liszt's  gifts  were  not  creative,  but 
were  merely  a  talent  for  achieving  sensational  effect. 
.  Rubenstein  with  Liszt  was  conspicuous  in  the  field 
of  interpretation.  Anton  Rubenstein,  1830-1894, 
was  a  Russian  who  was  brought  up  at  Moscow.  His 
mother  was  his  first  piano  teacher,  and  before  he 
was  fourteen  he  toured  as  a  youthful  prodigy.  When 
he  was  eighteen  he  began  to  write  operas.  He  lived 
at  this  time  in  St.  Petersburg  where  he  was  a  great 
favorite.  After  this  he  made  many  memorable 
tours  in  Europe  and  came  to  America.  His  last 
years  were  spent  mostly  in  Berlin  and  in  Dresden. 
Rubenstein*s  works  for  the  piano  include  5  concertos, 
4  sonatas,  a  suite,  tone  pictures,  and  many  other 
works.  Although  he  is  famous  as  a  pianist,  his 
own  preference  was  to  be  remembered  as  a  com- 
poser. 

Verdi  is  the  representative  of  the  Italian  opera  at 
this  time.  Giuseppe  Verdi,  1813-1901,  was  a  sturdy 
young  Italian  who  came  to  the  front  in  1 840.  He 
was  Italian  through  and  through,  a  fine  melodist  and 
a  student  who  took  suggestions  from  all  sources. 
He  was  a  link  between  Rossini  and  Wagner  in  the 
historical  development  of  the  opera.  Verdi  was 
very  "resourceful  and  plastic"  but  his  work  always 


MUSIC  241 

illustrates  extremes.  He  showed  musical  tendencies 
at  the  age  of  seven.  At  ten  years  of  age  he  was 
village  organist.  At  twenty,  he  married  and  at 
twenty-five,  he  produced  his  first  opera.  His  operas 
number  over  30,  and  the  most  of  them  are  very  ser- 
ious. He  wrote  little  besides  opera.  Verdi  was 
independent,  noble,  generous,  and  warm-hearted. 
He  was  an  idol  in  Italy  and  so  industrious  and  bril- 
liant that  he  was  looked  up  to  by  musicians  every- 
where. 

TTie  great  name  in  music  just  after  1 850  is  Johan- 
nes Brahms.  He  became  famous  in  the  field  of 
song,  cantata,  symphony,  and  the  classical  quartet. 
He  was  a  prolific  writer  but  to  each  composition 
he  gave  earnest  and  careful  attention.  Brahms  died 
in  1897. 

At  this  time  waltz  music  became  a  standard  ob- 
ject of  artistic  treatment.  The  Viennese  composers, 
beginning  with  Mozart  and  Beethoven,  very  gener- 
ally used  the  waltz  form.  Schubert  developed  it 
further  and  Weber  made  of  it  an  orchestral  type. 
At  the  same  time  composers  and  directors  made  the 
form  popular.  Johann  Strauss,  "the  waltz-king," 
who  died  in  1899  won  international  renown  in  this 
field. 


242  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

Contemporaneous  with  Brahms  was  Hector  Ber- 
lioz, the  great  French  musical  critic  and  composer, 
whose  name  is  always  associated  with  Liszt's  and 
Wagner's.  He  was  the  first  leader  to  conduct  more 
than  one  orchestra  at  the  same  time.  Berlioz  made 
a  careful  study  of  the  technical  capacities  of  orches- 
tral instruments  and  as  a  result  produced  from  them 
very  emotional  and  pictorial  effects.  His  works 
had  a  richness  of  tone  color,  which  won  for  him  a 
favorable  reception  from  Liszt  and  the  Weimar  cir- 
cle. His  influnce  was  especially  helpful  to  the  tech- 
nique of  orchestration. 

Berlioz,  Liszt,  and  Wagner  are  known  in  the 
musical  history  of  the  nineteenth  century  as  the  great 
triumvirate. 

The  last  great  name  in  music  is  Wagner's.  He 
wanted  to  create  German  Opera  and  as  a  result  re- 
constructed the  opera.  Richard  Wagner,  1813- 
1883,  was  the  youngest  of  nine  children.  Leipsic 
was  his  birthplace.  In  early  years  Wagner  showed 
little  interest  in  music.  When  he  was  eighteen  he 
came  into  contact  with  Beethoven's  orchestral  com- 
positions and  became  musically  ambitious.  Soon 
he  was  an  ardent  student  of  music  and  in  his  nine- 
teenth year  he  wrote  some  fragmentary  compositions. 


MUSIC  243 

Twelve  months  after,  was  chorus  master  in  a  theatre 
at  Wurzburg.  Later  he  became  a  director  at  Riga. 
In  1826  he  went  to  Paris.  Three  years  after,  in 
his  thirtieth  year,  "Rienzi"  was  successfully  present- 
ed at  Dresden.  His  next  production  was  "Der 
Fliegende  Hollander."  "Tannhauser"  came  out  in 
1845  and  "Lohengrin"  in  1847.  Wagner's  rivals 
now  became  jealous  of  him  and  very  bitter.  After 
fifteen  years  of  close  literary  work,  the  titanic  opera- 
tic cycle  which  was  to  establish  his  fame  began  to 
come  forth.  In  1 853-4  "Das  Rheingold"  was  writ- 
ten. In  1 854-6  he  drafted  "Die  Walkiire"  and  in 
1867,  after  his  fame  was  established,  he  produced 
"Die  Meistersinger."*  Two  years  later  he  brought 
forth  "Siegfried"  and  in  1874  he  gave  to  the  world 
"Gotterdammerung."  "Parsifal,"  produced  in 
1 882,  the  year  after  his  death,  was  his  last  opera. 

Wagner  died  at  Bayreuth.  The  eccentric  king 
of  Bavaria,  Ludwig  II,  loved  art  and  gave  his  pat- 
ronage to  Wagner.  For  twenty  years  the  critics 
and  the  public  waged  war  upon  this  musician.  His 
uncompromising  manner  subjected  him  to  the  persist- 
ent persecution  of  his  enemies,  but  after  1864  the 
musical  world  changed  its  attitude  and  Wagner's 

*Wagner's  operas  are  historical,  legendary  and  mythological. 
Die  Meistersinger  belongs  to  the  first  class. 


244  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

leadership  was  very  generally  recognized.  This 
artist  was  not  a  pioneer  in  his  chosen  field.  Instead, 
he  expanded  prevailing  ideas  and  brought  them  to  a 
large  fulfillment. 

In  connection  with  the  musicians  the  rise  of  the 
conservatory  should  be  mentioned.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  four  of  these  music  schools  were  establisheB 
in  Naples.  Originally  they  were  charity  schools 
for  poor  children,  but  during  the  two  centuries  which 
followed  they  were  the  recipients  of  large  bequests 
which  supported  several  great  teachers,  and  as  a  re- 
sult nearly  all  the  distinguished  musicians  of  the  Nea- 
politan school  were  associated  with  one  or  more  of 
them  either  in  the  capacity  of  teacher  or  of  pupil. 

In  1 795  the  Conservatoire  de  Musique  of  France 
was  established.  It  has  had  a  great  influence  upon 
musical  art  not  only  in  France  but  also  upon  all  the 
modern  world.  It  now  has  a  large  number  of  affili- 
ated schools  in  the  different  provinces,  all  of  which 
are  supported  by  the  government.  The  growth  and 
influence  of  the  French  conservatory  are  due  princi- 
pally to  great  directors,  among  whom  were  Sarette, 
Cherubini,  Ambroise  Thomas,  Dubois,  and  the  mod- 
ern Faure. 


MUSIC  245 

In  1843  Mendelssohn  opened  a  conservatory  in 
Leipsic.  It  cost  the  director  a  great  deal  of  hard 
work  to  put  it  upon  a  firm  foundation,  but  it  has  had 
and  continues  to  have  a  wonderful  influence  in  the 
musical  world.  It  has  always  been  closely  associa- 
ted with  the  Gewandhaus  Orchestra  of  Leispic  which 
is  a  model  of  its  kind. 

Berlin  is  now  an  important  center  of  choral  music 
and  for  the  study  of  theory  and  of  musical  history. 
It  has  and  has  had  many  able  teachers,  conservative 
and  solid,  who  draw  to  the  city  students  from  all 
over  the  world. 

London  is  another  musical  center.  Here  choral 
festivals  are  held  which  draw  the  music  lovers  of 
the  British  Isles.  Throughout  Europe  the  time  has 
come  when  cities  of  size  and  influnce  all  have  a  re- 
putable conservatory  of  music.  Since  Wagner's 
time,  Bayreuth  has  been  one  of  the  most  famous 
festival  centers.  In  1876  the  performance  of  his 
opera  cycle  there  scored  a  triumph  which  the  musical 
world  is  slow  to  forget.  This  led  to  the  production 
of  the  Wagnerian  music  in  other  centers  and  later  to 
the  musical  festival  proper. 

In  the  later  nineteenth  century  the  new  element 
of  nationalism  is  generally  recognized.  The  national 


246  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

characteristics  of  the  different  composers  have  al- 
ways been  noticed,  but  it  is  the  tendency  of  the  pres- 
ent to  emphasize  the  national  differences.  As  a  re- 
sult musicians  are  classified  in  groups.  The  first  is 
the  German  group.  Bernhard  Scholz  of  Frank- 
fort and  Max  Zenger  of  Munich  are  two  great 
names  among  many  others.  Next  is  the  French 
group,  among  whom  are  Cannile,  Saint-Saens,  and 
Jules  Massenet.  Last  is  the  English  group,  in  which 
are  Arthur  Sullivan  and  Alexander  Campbell  Mac- 
kenzie. The  musicians  of  Denmark,  Sweden  and 
Norway  are  called  the  Scandinavian  Group.  Emil 
Hartman  is  a  famous  Danish  composer.  August 
John  Soderman  is  a  Swedish  writer,  and  in  Norway 
the  great  name  is  Edward  Hagerup  Grieg.  Grieg 
is  by  far  the  most  famous  composer  of  this  northern 
group.  The  artists  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary  form 
what  is  called  the  Czech  or  Magyar  group.  Antonini 
Dvorak  is  the  great  name  among  these  musicians. 
After  them  comes  the  Russian  group,  which  is  made 
up  of  the  composers  from  Russia  and  Poland. 
Tschaikowski  is  the  great  Russian  composer  to-day, 
and  Paderewski,  the  well-known  virtuoso  on  the 
piano,  is  from  Poland. 


MUSIC  247 

In  the  United  States  music  has  had  a  phenomenal 
growth  in  rapidity  of  production  and  in  variety.  In 
the  last  few  years  this  country  has  proved  her  power 
musically  and  has  claimed  her  share  in  the  achieve- 
ments of  the  music  world.  Four  great  orchestras 
have  won  fame.  Hie  Philharmonic  of  New  York, 
1 842,  is  the  oldest  of  the  three,  the  Boston  Sympho- 
ny, 1881,  is  the  most  famous,  and  the  Thomas 
Orchestra  of  Chicago,  1 864,  which  is  named  for  its 
great  leader,  Theodore  Thomas,*  rivals  these.  Last- 
ly the  Philadelphia  orchestra,  1900,  has  come  into 
much  prominence.  Also  there  are  many  choral  so- 
cieties. The  Handel  and  Hadyn  Society  of  Boston 
is  the  oldest  and  the  Apollo  Club  of  Chicago,  is  one 
of  the  largest.  Philadelphia,  Cincinnati,  St.  Paul, 
and  other  cities  throughout  the  country  support  or- 
chestras and  choral  societies  of  considerable  size  and 
efficiency. 

Three  national  societies  which  stimulate  musical 
progress  in  the  United  States  are  the  Music 
Teachers'  National  Association,  the  Manuscript  So- 


*Theodore  Thomas,  the  pioneer  orchestral  leader  outside  of 
New  York  in  America,  made  extensive  concert  tours  and  did 
more  than  anyone  else  to  spread  the  knowledge  and  apprecia- 
tion of  orchestra  music.  At  the  Centennial  in  Philadelphia  in 
1876,  he  led  one  of  his  first  orchestras. 


248  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

ciety,  and  the  Guild  of  Organists  which  was  incor- 
porated in  1 896.  Moreover,  in  many  of  the  pubHc 
hbraries  a  good  collection  of  scholarly  musical  liter- 
ature is  provided  to  meet  the  general  need. 

Some  of  the  great  names  in  the  musical  world  of 
this  group  are  John  Knowles  Paine  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, an  organist  and  composer  of  note,  Dudley 
Buck,  a  church  organist  in  Brooklyn  and  William 
Mason  of  New  York.  William  Wallace  Gil- 
christ of  Philadelphia  and  Peter  Christian  Lutkin 
of  Evanston  are  two  of  the  many  names  which  could 
be  mentioned. 

This  summary  of  the  history  of  music  is  very  brief. 
It  has  been  possible  merely  to  indicate  the  salient 
points.  It  is  a  subject  that  repays  effort  and 
promises  a  rich  reward  to  all  who  will  find  the 
"high  art'*  to  which  the  science  has  attained. 


MUSIC  249 

Twelve  Great  Musical  Productions. 

Handel's,  The  Messiah  (oratorio) 
Gl lick's  Iphegenie  en  Tauride  (opera) 
Mozart's  The  Magic  Flute  (opera) 
Haydn's  The  Creation  (oratorio) 
Beethoven's  Kreutzer  Sonata  (for  piano  and  vio- 
lin.) 

Beethoven's  Ninth  Symphony 
Schubert's  Overture  to  Rosamunde. 
Mendelssohn's  Elijah  (oratorio) 
Liszt's  Hungarian  Rhapsodies. 

Chopin's  Marche  Funcbre  or  Third  Movement 
Sonata. 

Verdi's  II  Trovatore  (opera) 
Wagner's  Niebelungen  Ring. 

!Das  Rheingold 
Siegfried 
Die  Valkure 
Gotterd  a  mmerung 
Tschaikowski's  The  Pathetic  Symphony. 


Chapter  VII 

Unity  of  Art  Expression. 

"Then  just  within  the  gate  I  saw  a  child — 
A  stranger  child,  yet  to  my  heart  most  dear; 

He  held  his  hands  to  me  and  softly  smiled 
With  eyes  that  knew  no  shade    of  sin  or  fear; 

*  Come  in,*  he  said,    and  play  aw^hile  w^ith  me ; 
I  am  the  little  child  you  used  to  be.*  '* 

—Henry  Van  Dyke. 

After  considering  the  different  forms  of  art,  the 
unity  of  art  expression  is  very  easily  established. 
Architect,  painter,  sculptor,  and  musician,  while  un- 
like other  men,  are  extraordinarily  similar  to  one 
another.  Each  has  what  an  essayist  is  pleased  to 
call  "the  artistic  temperament.'*  This  is  an  endow- 
ment which  makes  him  first  feel,  then  see,  hear,  and 
touch  more  acutely  than  do  others  who  are  less  gift- 
ed. The  artist  is  always  a  dreamer,  but  he  is  an 
executor  as  well.  He  lives  as  it  were  in  a  world  of 
his  own  construction,  rather  than  in  the  world  of 
nature.  For  him  the  shadows  lose  their  blackness, 
the  south  wind  sings  a  song  of  the  advent  of  summer, 

251 


252  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

and  the  branches  of  the  trees  build  cathedral 
aisles  above  the  streets  and  through  the  forests. 
More  than  this  the  artist  has  four  quahties  which 
identify  his  temperament  and  spell  success.  The 
first  is  sacrifice.  The  history  of  art  is  replete  with 
incidents  of  artists  who  have  braved  poverty  and 
ridicule  for  the  sake  of  their  art.  The  second  qual- 
ity is  industry.  No  biography  offers  more  stimulat- 
ing records  of  hard  work  than  does  that  of  the  artist. 
Next  the  artistic  temperament  is  confident.  This 
confidence  is  dynamic.  It  charges  his  eye,  his  hand, 
and  his  heart  with  power.  And  last  of  all  the  artist 
has  an  interpretative  quality.  The  cathedral  builders 
built  high  spires.  To  the  laity  their  height  spelled 
beauty,  to  the  architect  this  dimension  spelled 
God.  To  the  Greeks  a  woman  of  noble  propor- 
tions was  a  pleasure,  but  to  Phidias  she  became  a 
Venus  for  the  Parthenon.  Claude  Lorraine  and 
Turner  saw  the  atmosphere  and  painted  it;  ordinary 
persons  are  unconscious  of  the  medium  of  the  air. 
All  persons  sorrow  and  grieve,  but  Beethoven 
turned  his  suffering  into  music.  Thus  the  artist 
dreams  and  works,  feels  and  executes. 

Another  characteristic  which  shows  the  unity  of 
art  expression  is  that  the  artist  always  reveals  his 


UNITY  OF  ART  253 

best.  Nothing  short  of  this  satisfies  him.  His  aud- 
ience may  look  or  Hsten  "wrapped  in  wonder,  love, 
and  praise,*'  but  unless  it  is  an  adequate  expression 
of  his  best,  the  restless  spirit  of  the  artist  is  even  then 
clamoring  to  do  again  what  he  feels  that  he  can  do 
better.  There  is  something  sacred  about  man's  best, 
and  it  should  be  approached  with  reverence.  There 
is  a  momentum  in  doing  one's  best  that  carries  man 
on  and  on  each  time  to  a  better  best,  a  progress 
which  the  world  calls  growth.  Growth  is  a  mystic 
process.  It  changes  the  child  of  yesterday 
into  the  man  of  to-day,  and  better  still 
it  builds  a  soul  into  the  likeness  of  God. 
Now  it  is  this  miracle  of  growth  which  en- 
ables the  artist  to  speak  through  his  canvas,  and  more 
it  empowers  the  onlooker  to  read  his  message. 

This  brings  us  to  the  function  of  art  which  is  the 
most  important  question  in  the  consideration  thus  far. 
We  have  said  that  the  artist  is  alert  to  the  beautiful 
things  about  him.  What  are  these  beauties?  Blue 
sky  and  brown  dead-earth,  skeleton  trees  with  feath- 
ery branches,  silhouetted  against  the  sky,  "patches 
of  snow  and  stretches  of  ice  and  the  clear,  cold, 
bracing  air  of  the  morning";  then  noon  and  night 
and  day  again,  a  ceaseless  round  of  miracles  in  this 


254  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

wonderland  of  nature  called  the  world.     A  con- 
stant round  of  changes  in  the  world  inside — 

"A  garden  is  a  lovesome  thing,  God  wot! 

Rose  plot, 

Fringed  pool, 

Ferned  grot — 

The  veriest  school 

Of  peace ;  and  yet  the  fool 

Contends  that  God  is  not — 

Not  God !  in  gardens  where  the  eve  is  cool ! 

Nay,  but  I  have  a  sign: 

'Tis  very  sure  God  walks  in  mine." 

This  wonderful  fairy  land  of  nature  is  peopled 
with  men,  of  all  colors,  in  all  climes,  men  rich  in 
knowledge,  in  resources,  and  in  power,  and  men  poor 
in  all  that  the  world  counts  worthy.  Yet  in  each, 
God  works  a  ceaseless  round  of  changes,  changes 
in  body,  changes  in  heart,  and  changes  in  soul.  That 
possession  which  men  call  culture  is  only  an  out- 
come of  the  "art-impulse",  which  is  as  common  to 
the  black  man  and  to  the  son  of  toil  as  to  the  artist 
and  to  his  appreciator.  It  is  this  impulse  which  gives 
universal  insight  into  the  meaning  of  art-expression. 
The  supposed  mysteries  of  the  Appreciation  of  Art 
reduce  themselves  into  terms  of  everyday  intelligence 


UNITY  OF  ART  255 

and  common  sense,  although  the  expression  of  art 
may  be  characterized  by  symboHsm,  impressionism, 
or  naturahsm. 

Moreover  this  fairyland  of  nature  is  a  magic 
world.  Just  as  to-day  supplants  yesterday  and  to- 
morrow eludes  to-day,  so  the  child  one  used  to  be  is 
supplanted  by  the  person  he  now  is,  and  this  person 
never  overtakes  the  one  he  is  to  be.  The  child  the 
man  used  to  be  is  gone  and  he  himself  the  person  of 
larger  growth  is  come.  A  subtle  change  silent, 
tremendous,  inevitable !  Thus  this  magic  world  be- 
comes a  land  of  miracles  for  the  body  stretches  to 
meet  the  soul  and  it  in  turn  towers  up  unseen  to  meet 
its  God.  Again,  this  miracle  is  called  growth,  and 
the  name  of  the  growth  of  the  soul  which  speaks 
through  the  artist  in  his  art  is  revelation.  Revela- 
tion is  hard  to  analyze  but  one  very  obvious  element 
in  it  is  feeling.  Feeling  is  that  mysterious  messenger 
which  acquaints  us  with  beauty  and  with  harmony 
or  on  the  other  hand  takes  the  sun  out  of  the  sun- 
shine and  steals  happiness  from  the  soul. 

Feeling  is  a  sprite  which  touches  the  realism  of 
the  artist  and  turns  it  into  idealism  in  you  and  me. 
As  the  boy  is  father  to  the  man,  so  the  feeling  of  the 
artist  is  the  father  of  appreciation  in  art.     Several 


256  APPRECIATION  OF  ART 

times  in  this  book  art  has  been  defined  as  the  pur- 
suit of  the  True,  the  Good,  and  the  Beautiful.  The 
function  of  art  then  is  to  reveal  what  the  artists  have 
found  in  these  three  realms  through  the  medium  of 
expression,  and  through  man*s  appreciation  of  art  to 
publish  these  truths  to  the  world. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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